Broad Political Theory Questions

Picking on materialism in Feuerbach, Marx claims sensuousness and actuality as the main objects of contemplation. This implicitly implies that humanity is interested on selfish issues which result to individual pleasure. Objectivity is also viewed in regards to whether humanity can remain objective. Marx‘s position is of critical importance though the stand on whether it has changed the world remains debatable. Locke’s philosophy has played a big part in the present day events. A look at the American constitution serves as a pointer to this view.Even the unites nations charter on human rights seems to have made reference to Lockes’ work especially on property rights. Locke seems too be an advocate of a free society in which individuals get to benefit equitably. Though this has not been achieved, the society has made remarkable improvements towards attaining certain universal goals like the millennium development goals. The pursuit of objectivity as implied by Marx is thus a unifying feature of the two philosophers. Plato only interpreted the world while attempting to achieve his goal of indicating or underscoring the importance of the republic.Whereas, the pursuit if justice is of noble consideration, it remains to be seen whether, it has been achieved or whether it will ever be achieved. The effect that the Plato philosophy has had remains persistent and unbroken. The academy the philosopher opened in Athens remains a pillar of the works undertaken by the scholar. The influences of Plato are known to have played a significant role in shaping various religious developments over a long period of time. If justice is to be attained, then objectivity is a prerequisite, a fact observed by Marx. 2. Machiavelli used hypocrisy to lay siege on the Christian faith.The philosopher was always against morality apart from the support he gave to those intending to stand on its way. Christianity is based on what its faith call good morals. As Machiavelli pu ts it, morality is not an issue if it cannot be justified. Machiavelli believed that it’s the ‘end that justifies the means’. Machiavelli saw every piece of religion as an act of propaganda. Machiavelli thought that the Christian faith would collapse before the world itself came to an end. Through social relativism, Machiavelli claimed the absence of the Christian god.In this construction, it was claimed that since God never existed to offer universal morals, then there were no morals top be followed. Socrates is believed to have carried a study on what constituted holiness. This in itself presented an act of impiety. While facing a case in Xenophon, Socrates twice objected to using a divine sign ass he prepared his defense. Socrates in another case chose to save Euthyphro instead of saving himself. In short, the prime focus rests on the accusation against Socrates as introducing new gods in the town. The two philosophers appeared to have veered off societal godl y underpinnings.The fact that Socrates is accused of bringing gods to town serves as a pointer to the fact that there are respected and un-respected gods. Machiavelli’s rebuttal of the Christian faith also presents the philosopher as a person that objects to well crafted societal religious leanings. It is thus held that these two philosophers played a role in jeopardizing well regarded traditions during their time. 3. Socrates uses the human tendency to corruption to propagate his preferred type of leadership. Socrates points to timocracy, democracy, oligarchy, and tyranny as unacceptable forms of government.Socrates finally submitted that if ruling was to attain the best for society, then it should be left to philosopher leaders. In Socrates’ thinking, the philosophers were the most just and least susceptible to graft. The scholar augmented the position by claiming that the philosophers were in a position to rule in pursuit of the good for the city as opposed to for t he self. In a legitimate society, there is no room for societal divisions; all citizens should enjoy same level benefits. Thomas Hobbes’ views on the best possible form or structure of government were premised on a society led by a powerful leviathan.Based on social contract theories, the focus remains on the creation of a strong centre of administration. This type of government as proposed by Hobbes will guarantee the security and welfare of the people. Any abuses that may arise as a result of the leadership by the leviathan must be accepted. This is premised on the fact that the people by setting up the leviathan, agreed to cede their natural power. Socrates manages to drive to his peers that a government is a role played best by people disconnected with self interest.On the other hand, one gets the impression that Hobbes was driving home the need to have a powerful leadership that was not answerable to people. In the Socrates’ society individuals would have a say, w hile in the Hobbesian society, individuals would not hold a say on public issues. 4. Thomas Hobbes believed that human desires, selfish interests, pleasures and pains of a moment played a key role in decision making. These factors among others imply tat the human nature cannot be relied upon in passing judgment on a number of issues as distortions may occur.Hobbes focal point in relation to human nature remains premised on the concept of motivation. Hobbes saw man as a self centered and rationally calculating individual. It is thus highly unlikely that people will pursue common good. Individuals due to their selfish stances are thus destined top pursue personal goals even if this means putting the goals of the rest at stake. In Hobbes thinking, common good is thus an illusion. In reference to Plato, the pursuit of happiness had to lie with the observation of virtues and commonly accepted doctrines.Plato held the Sophistic view concerning knowledge which saw it as subjective and rela tive. This, in reference to Plato, undermined morality. It thus led Plato into believing that there was no infallible truth. Plato failed to see the point why a person who could not understand the self and rules of morality would be bound to look beyond the principle of self actualization. In short, if morality does not take care of individual interests, then individuals are not bound to observe its dictates. Plato saw man’s nature as rational and expected society to be organized in tandem with requirements of civility on rational principles.As a rational being, a human being knows or is in a position to evaluate every case scenario and pursues what best serves the interests desired by the individual in question. 5. On the basis of Aristotle, happiness is not primarily premised upon an exercise of virtue but rather on the administering of an ideal state. In a nut shell, the interests of all are closely knit together such that the interests of all resemble the interests of a s ingle individual in the republic. In precise terms, all individual acts are for the common good. This altruistic stance remains questionable as it is difficult in practice top find such states.Niccolo Machiavelli is famous for the advice given to the monarch with a view to power monopolization. Machiavelli advocated for policies that would discourage mass activism in political affairs. Machiavelli believed the citizenry was well exercising its energies in private practice in the process leaving out political and state activities. In his book, the Prince, Machiavelli urged the monarch to use violence and force to achieve the government goals. Machiavelli held the view that political aims could not be led by a single set of religious or moral ideas.From the above two positions, it emerges that there are interests to be protected by any state or society. The societal or state claims are wide varied as the ruled and the rulers may conflict on interests. Even if there were no conflicts, still issues regarding approach would arise. This puts the leaders, the few, against the ruled, the many. On this basis, Machiavelli sought to have the ruler have enormous responsibility in making decisions as the many could spoil the aspirations of a republic. However, Aristotle envisaged a scenario; whereby the interests are melted down to reflect a single position, a position difficult to reach.Hence this implied that the leaders had to take a position that they thought would serve societal interests. 6. Aristotle viewed natural justice as a special species of political justice. Inn this view, Aristotle believed that a society had to enlist distributive and corrective measures to ensure societal cohesion. Aristotle claimed further, that the best regime may not after all the one that observes the rule of law in its operations. On the basis of Aristotle every civilized society had a set of rules and regulations it used to govern behaviour.In Aristotle’s views, civilized soci ety emerged as a result of the emerging need to develop laws to regulate certain aspects of life within different societies. Thomas Hobbes uses the term leviathan to capture the collective will of people. These people come together to form a government that retains the sovereign authority. To Thomas Hobbes, collective will is the major force behind the formation of a civilized society. The people realized that they had collective desire, to achieve the different desires; they saw it worthy to establish an authority to take care of their needs.The biggest need being the provision of security so that each individual gets to go about their business without undue disturbance. The differences appear minute in this case as Aristotle’s view of a civilized society was based on the need for cohesiveness in society. On the other hand, the need for civility in reference to Thomas Hobbes rested on the drive to protect collective will. The act of protecting collective will is almost in li ne with regulating societal aspects so as to exact compliance. However, this should not be misconstrued to mean that the two mean the same thing as only similarities exist.7. Aristotle believed that family existed just for the sake of political life. Further to this, Aristotle supposedly viewed politics as practiced for friendship purposes. Contrary to this position, Aristotle discussed family relations as types of friendships which are used as designs of political rule. He thus obscures the ordering of the relationships that he advocates in politics. The practice of politics must observe friendly relations just as a family does. In the terms of Aristotle, politics is thus useful in strengthening family ties.The family integrates people into a family and thus aids the formation or the commencement of political life. John Locke’s 2nd treatise of government aimed to show that there was a legitimate foundation between people and power. This was captured by the social contract th eory. Locke believed that a political society is not a form of family. In this regard, Locke was trying to discredit the patriarchal kingship. Locke went further to claim that a magistrate’s position on a case could not be compared o a father’s on a child’s case. Locke saw two distinct societies in this scenario.Locke further claimed that the creation of the two societies was different and meant to achieve different goals. In Locke’s observation, the political society’s end is to possess property unlike a familial one that aims at raising children. The major separation point between the two scholars is premised on the aims of the two societies and how they are formed. Whereas Aristotle assumed that the two societies pursue one aim, Locke clearly shows that the aims are distinct in the two societies. The reasons for formation are equally found to be different as opposed to the views posited by Aristotle. 8.Locke’s position on money is viewed in relation to the right to ownership of property. In Locke’s opinion, each individual had the right to acquire property through hard work. However, Locke only saw it necessary that an individual amasses what they only need and ensure that in that pursuit, their labor does not become destructive. In precise terms, what Locke stood for was acquisitions of needs. He was opposed to excessive accumulation of wealth which defines the current society. Locke appeared to assume that all things were naturally available to everybody and thus objected to the systems of accumulation.An accumulation beyond what one could use at the time amounted to acquiring an unfair share. Aristotle saw the necessity of money in human life. However, he made a number of proposals regarding currency. Aristotle saw money as a common measure of al things available for consumption. In a nut shell, Aristotle saw money as the surest way of equalizing all consumables. In Aristotle’s terms, money was nece ssary to ensure a just and fair exchange system. The philosopher thus argued that money came up in a bid to ease the problem of exchange.In Aristotle’s terms good money had to be durable, portable, divisible, and intrinsically valuable. On the basis of the above presentation, it is crystal clear that Locke saw money as a potential for unfair practices. It could only be fair if each individual would acquire a rightful amount so that everybody’s interests are taken care of. In reference to Aristotle, money was good only if it could be used for constructive purposes. Aristotle did not envisage money to be used in a commercialized manner. This is because of what Aristotle perceived as the nature’s limited nature.

Khan Academy

With the Khan-Academy systematics, I feel that it is actually a tool that helps many others like myself who may be attending math classes in school. As a child in elementary school, the Internet program helped me start filling the â€Å"Swiss cheese† gaps Khan talked about. The â€Å"Swiss cheese† gaps, are the things people didn’t learn while they were in math classes, where the teacher simply did not go into great detail of explaining. The way the gaps began to be filled, was that it actually challenged me to a greater potential that I thought could not be achieved.In fact many others in my class treated the program as a game in a good way, as on the Internet program one wins a copious amount of prizes in which we used to brag to each other on. To win prizes they may consist of answering a specific amount of questions or becoming persistent at working with Khan-Academy. Something the program has definitely made up is the intolerable position in which unfit teac hers put there students into. The math teachers usually do not help enough or teach only one way, and this is the full reason on why some student actually end up failing their classes.With Khan-Academy some how the student that ended up failing their math classes, now have grades like the visually impaired gifted ones, which also may show how poorly the teachers may have taught their students. Another good point Khan made happen to be the interactions that started to make place amongst the student of classes, in which the ones that did not understand the lessons could know get taught by other students that may have had a full understanding of whatever the problem or problems were.A way the Khan-Academy is assuring that the help that is given is accurate, is that within the program itself it has a way a keeping track who is excelling, and who may not be. Either way one may take the program, it benefits everyone in a various amount of ways and has been a major help in classes across A merica by helping student who did not excel in math class before.

Conan Doyle and Graham Greene Essay

Compare how Conan Doyle and Graham Greene use the detective fiction genre to deceive the reader in â€Å"The Man with the Twisted Lip† and â€Å"The Third Man†.  The Detective story is written to deceive the reader this is true of both â€Å"The Third Man† by Graham Greene and Conan Doyle’s â€Å"the Man with the Twisted Lip†. Both writers use your knowledge of other detective stories to ‘lure’ you into a false understanding that this is one of them. We expect that the stories are another ‘Whodunit’ murder mystery but really, it is the writer fooling us, as it is the mystery of the murdered being alive. Conan Doyle sets up expectations in the reader by setting the story around an opium den, which was greatly feared at the time of being written. The setting of an opium den would conjure up many dark images and so makes us jump to conclusions about the ‘murder’ we, the reader, assume that anyone associated with an opium den could be a murderer.  Doyle makes the main suspect a beggar who many people look down on, adding more to the assumption that he is the murderer of Neville St Clair.  Ã¢â‚¬  In fact, in the whole of that floor there was no one to be found, save a crippled wretch of hideous aspect, who, it seems, made his home there.† Doyle describes Hugh Boone, the beggar, as † the creature† and uses such descriptions as â€Å"greasy† â€Å"disfigured horrible scar† and â€Å"a bull dog chin† to build up a mental image in our heads of a rather revolting man, atypical ‘baddie’ of a detective story.  Graham Greene sets â€Å"The Third Man† in post-war Vienna, during which Austria is still occupied territory and is spilt into four zones. The breakdown in communication between the zones has resulted in poor law and order in the city. Greene mentions early on that Harry is a racketeer † A very long spell’ (in prison)’if it hadn’t been for the accident.†Ã‚  And  Ã¢â‚¬Å"He was about the worst racketeer who ever made a dirty living in this city†.  We are told what he does for a living but not how he does it until further into the book. During the time that we find out what his profession is, to what he sells the story of Harry’s death change with each person Martin questions. This makes us realise quite soon that Harry did not die in an accident but under suspicious circumstances.  Graham Greene uses a police officer to narrate the story. The figure of authority makes us belive what he is telling us and our natural response is not to doubt him. Greene throughout the story never mentions Martins current status and refers to him in the past † he always tried† instead of â€Å"he always tries† for example, this makes us wonder if Martins is still alive. Rollo Martins protested lime’s innocence until he found concrete evidence to prove otherwise. We feel sorry for him and want to belive Lime’s innocence to, this leads us further away from the truth. The romance between Martins and Anna is a side plot put in to add another aspect to the detective story, but also to distract our attention away from the reality, that Harry faked his own death leaving a devoted friend and his lover behind in order to escape police capture. However with Anna’s genuine grief over Harry’s ‘death’ is the same as Rollo protesting Harry’s innocence, we want to belive them. Conan Doyle uses Doctor Watson as the narrator, as he has in the other Sherlock homes stories. In â€Å"The Man with the Twisted Lip† Watson joins Homes after collecting a man from an opium den, setting the scene immediately in a sinister atmosphere. The problem is told to the reader at the same time as Watson. This means there is a character in the story that we can identify with, as they know just as much as we do. The mysteries leaves us with no explanation as to how a man can be seen in a room then appear to have vanished. Because we, the reader, have no idea of how the disappearance happened, we are given an explanation that, as we have no other theory, chooses to accept. Graham Greene uses the crimes of Harry Lime to distract us from any real clues that there are. There are two men at the funeral, one of which forgets to drop a wreath onto the coffin- a sign of grief of or knowing that the body being buried is not of Harry Lime.  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"There must be something phoney about a man who won’t take baldness gracefully†Ã‚  This takes suspicion away from the fake death of Harry’s and puts it on those who were with him when he ‘died’.  Over all both writers, use our expectations of a ‘typical’ detective story against us. They ‘pull the wool over our eyes’ in what are enjoyable story is to read.

Find a issue and two reasons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Find a issue and two reasons - Essay Example Nonetheless, poverty is a social phenomenon, which is experienced in all countries, including the developed and developing countries. The social phenomenon of poverty is not as simple as it might appear. This is a complex phenomenon, which is complicated. Therefore, it is has proved challenging to provide a universal definition of this phenomenon. In addition, it is also complicated and challenging to discover the real causes of poverty. Different scholars studying this phenomenon have identified differing causes, and most have disagreed on which ones to term as the main causes of this phenomenon (Lusted 12). Nonetheless, some of the main factors considered to cause poverty include unequal distribution of resources in the society, and environmental degradation. Unequal distribution of resources makes some people to be termed rich, and others poor. Therefore, the group of people with limited access to resources will experience poverty. On the other hand, environmental degradation will affect those people who solely rely on the environment for natural resources. Farmers, anglers, are affected negatively by environmental degradation, therefore, making them poor (Fight Poverty n.p.). Nonetheless, the phenomenon of poverty is important in the world today, as through tis, the distribution patterns of wealth and resources can be traced. This would therefore, help most sociologists understand other social issues in different countries, with regard to their poverty levels. Sociologists and Anthropologists argue that poverty is a phenomenon that has existed throughout history, even before the recorded history. This is because the element of social stratification is inherent in the human society. Therefore, status, wealth, and power are all unequally distributed in society, even in the prehistoric times. Poverty is real and has been existent in the world over the past centuries. According to the records of the United Nations, poverty exists in most continents. In addition , Anthropologists and sociologists have traced poverty to the ancient eras, including the early periods of civilization. In addition, poverty is evident during the colonial era, according to sociologists. Today, the phenomenon of poverty is more prevalent in the third-world countries. Most African countries are stricken with poverty as shown by the increased deaths due to hunger, as well as increased immortality rates. Most poor African countries have therefore, benefited from considerable amount of aid and relief from the West (WHO n.p.). On the other hand, in most developed countries, the government supports the few poor countries through financial assistance. Homelessness in both developed and developing countries is an evidence of poverty in those countries. Poverty is a problematic phenomenon, considering it is among the social phenomena that humankind has failed to address. Poverty is detrimental, but no strategy over the years, has been instrumental in eliminating it. Nonethe less, between environmental degradation and unequal distribution of resources, unequal distribution of resources in society is the most valid cause of poverty. If all people in society would access wealth in the same measure, then there would not exist the phenomenon of poverty (Fight Poverty n.p.). Environmental degradation has existed for the past few decades, and there has been awareness about this aspect, which generally bears negative consequences for human beings. It is argued that environmental deg

Adolescent pregnancy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Adolescent pregnancy - Assignment Example The ultimate result is usually unplanned pregnancy at teenage age. Lack of proper guidance from parents or caretakers is a factor that leads to teenage pregnancy. This is because such teenagers require support and appropriate guidance during their adolescence stage (Macleod, 2003). Teenage pregnancy carries with itself colossal amount of health risk to the baby, mother and the society. According to WHO, pregnancy and childbirth related complications are the second causes of death among teenagers globally. Some of the risks that teenage pregnancy pose to the baby include delivery of low birth weight babies that predispose them to lifelong conditions, reduced developmental milestone leading to intellectual and socio-emotional delays. The risk to the mother includes school dropout, abortions, psychological problems like depression, low self-esteem because she feels neglected by the peers. She can as well have medical complications during delivery because of inadequate and immature pelvis. Teenage pregnancy risk to the society include influence on other younger girls who may see it as a fashion and try it, burden to the maternal child health clinic, reduced economic output since they are not working and drop out of school (Crittenden, Boris, Rice, Taylor, & Olds, 2009). The Maryland family planning health programme is involved in prevention of teen pregnancies. The programme funds young adult and teen pregnancy prevention. This programme aims to reach several youths who are at risk of being pregnant. Its main theme is advocating abstinence and offering tools that help to delay sexual activity and unplanned pregnancies. The national support centre for state teens is involved in youth activism by critically putting in place policies that address teen pregnancies. They support and strengthen the states capacity to stop teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. They offer services like

In-house production Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

In-house production - Article Example Globalization is both a cause and a result of the modern information revolution. It is driven by dramatic improvements in telecommunications, incredible increases in computing power, and the development of information networks, such as the Internet. These technologies are helping to overcome the barriers of physical distance. With what results' According to its proponents, globalization can be a whirlwind of trade and investment that builds economies and spurs development in even the world's poorest countries. For example, during the 1990's alone, foreign investors have poured one'trillion dollars into developing economies. This phenomenal increase in international investment has made the building of roads, airports, and factories possible in poorer nations. Globalization has indeed been a force that has raised living standards for some across the world. Peter Sutherland, chairman of the Overseas Development Council, says that "until recently, it took at least two generations for living standards to double, but in China, living standards now double every 10 years" (as quoted by Bendor-Samuel, 24). Globalization is perceived as bringing unprecedented opportunities to billions of people. The staggering expansion of world trade has induced a wave of productivity and efficiency and has created new'jobs. Its critics,Its critics, however, counter that globalization can also bring down economies overnight. A few clicks of a computer mouse can devalue a national currency very quickly, washing away the life savings of millions of breadwinners. Ominous words from the mouth of an influential Wall Street analyst can instantly cause a herd of panicked investors to sell their stocks in Asia, creating a huge capital vacuum that could eventually drive millions into poverty. A board of directors can decide to close a plant in Mexico and open up one in Thailand instead-creating jobs in Asia while condemning hundreds of families in Latin America to destitution. Certainly, as governments from different countries try to get into the bandwagon of globalization, outsourcing has been the main focus of many government officials when it comes to the shift of industrial culture that their own countries have to take. However, outsourcing has not been so much of an accepted agreement for everyone, especially for the local workers in the United States. What are the reasons behind this' What really is outsourcing and how does this economic strategy affect the whole working force of the business industries' The Truth behind Outsourcing Strategies Universally, globalization has placed great pressure on working people as governments force down wages and labor standards in an attempt to attract foreign investment with the promise of low costs. While some newly industrialized countries have profited from increased exports as a result of freer global trade, poorer nations have been largely excluded from the feast. Along with this, the economic enthusiasts saw the possibilities of using the low-cost options of taking the skills of other poorer countries in becoming a part of the work force of their growing economies. It all seemed so practical at first; however, some considerations placed some pressures on the matter. True, the skills of the third world communities are

Sainsbury Supermarket Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sainsbury Supermarket - Case Study Example The 2008 outlook also reports that downside risk to the outlook seems more threatening that at the time of the September 2007 outlook. This is because oil price declines since last august and generally benign global financial conditions have helped to limit spillovers from the corrections in the US housing market and to contain inflation pressures. (IMF World Economic Outlook, 2008). Thus, multinational companies must rethink their global strategies, in the phase of foreign exchange rate and falling price of oil. The present circumstances make them victims of foreign exchange risk and exposures. Against this background, the purpose of this paper is three fold. The study first of all is aimed at carrying out an analysis of the impact of foreign exchange exposure on a United Kingdom UK based retail company-Sainsbury Supermarket. In the second part of the paper, the paper analysis the impact of capital investment appraisal tools on the activities of Sainsbury group. In the third part of the paper the paper asses the impact of share valuation on Sainsbury group. The last section of the paper presents conclusion and a brief recommendation to the company's management on how to go about getting the best from foreign currency exposures. Like macroeconomic analysis the analysis of the industry i... In the third part of the paper the paper asses the impact of share valuation on Sainsbury group. The last section of the paper presents conclusion and a brief recommendation to the company's management on how to go about getting the best from foreign currency exposures. 1.1 Brief Overview of Sainsbury Supermarket Like macroeconomic analysis the analysis of the industry is important because it enables the analysts to make abnormal profits arising from information asymmetry between the proper analyst and competitors who fail to carry out a proper analysis. Just as it is difficult for a firm to do well in a poor macroeconomic environment, so too is it difficult for a firm to perform well in a troubled industry. (Bodie et al, 2002). Similarly, as performance can vary across countries, so too does it vary across industries. (Bodie et al, 2002). According to the company, (2008) report, J Sainsbury plc is a United Kingdom-based food retailer with interests in financial services. The main activities of the company are in the groceries, related retailing and financial services. According to the corporate report, J Sainsbury plc consists of 504 supermarkets and 319 convenience stores and Sainsbury's bank. Sainsbury's Online is the Company's Internet-based home delivery shopping service, which operates from 97 stores. Bells Stores operates a chain of 54 convenience stores in north east England. Jackson's Stores operates a chain of 114 stores across Yorkshire and the North Midlands in the United Kingdom. Sainsbury's Bank, owned by J Sainsbury plc and HBOS plc group, offers a range of products, including savings and loan products. The Company's businesses are organised into two operating divisions: 1.2

E-waste Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

E-waste - Essay Example The technology that has been manufactured for the betterment of the society is now posing a threat as it is being dumped in larger quantities (Luther) This essay will revolve around the concept of E-Waste and how measures are being taken in order to minimize the threat that it poses to the world. E Waste is generally considered a part of the solid waste and is disposed off in the municipal solid waste along with the necessary precautions that need to be taken when disposing it off. This disposal creates a hazard for the society as these gadgets are made up of components that can be hazardous to the health of the individuals (Luther 1-3). The waste that is being disposed off consists of lead, mercury, selenium and other components which are known to be hazardous (Johri 3-4). As these products are being disposed off, the hazardous nature of E-Waste is taking a new leap and the state affairs are taking a keen interest in the aspect of recycling this waste. Many states have already implemented a strategy that forces the concerned authorities to recycle this waste rather than disposing it off. However this recycling has also caused an irk amongst the scholars as the products are being recycled and sent to the developing countries where the hazards of such material increases even further (Luther 1-3). E Waste forms around 0.01% to 1% of municipal solid waste in the developing countries. Televisions and computers that were being built previously consisted of an overwhelming amount of lead. If these computers and televisions are discarded at a ground, these dangerous elements can leak out in the soil and cause havoc. The computer chips and other circuitry are made up of other poisons that can contaminate the soil and this includes mercury which is known to be a cancer causing agent. It is thus very important for the concerned authorities to review the process of dumping this waste and

Analysis of Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analysis of Globalization - Essay Example   First of all it is necessary to mention that globalization has both positive and negative impacts on contemporary world, and exactly nowadays it is difficult to find a more fashionable and debatable topic than globalization. Different conferences and symposia, hundreds of modern books and thousands of articles are devoted to it. Scientists and politicians, businessmen and economists, religious leaders and artists argue about it. The subject of lively debate is literally everything - what the globalization is, when it started, how it fits with other processes in public and economic life, and what its immediate and long-term consequences are. However, the abundance of approaches, opinions and assessments do not guarantee the deep study of this fundamental issue. Globalization is considered to be a difficult question that is not difficult only for mass consciousness but for scientific analysis, too. Thus, it is waiting for a thorough study and we are going to begin its discussion fr om the perspective of economic inequality. Thinking about economic inequality through the prism of globalization it is necessary to mention that the main consequence of this is the global division of labor, migration across the planet's capital, human and industrial resources, the standardization of legislation, economic and technological processes, as well as the convergence of cultures in different countries. It is an objective process that is systemic in its nature and that covers all the aspects of society. Globalization is associated primarily with the internationalization of the entire public activity on the Earth (Gumery, 2006). This internationalization means that humanity is a single system of social, cultural, economic, political and other relations, interactions and relationships in the modern era. For example, including all the countries and nationalities, epochal events and changes that happened in the world at the end of the last century we recognize globalization†™s influence. Humanity now lives in the ‘world community’ where a single country or a group of countries cannot be fully fenced off from each other. Globalization deeply leaves roots in the history, and, however, it is considered to be the phenomenon of the 20th century. It is obvious that the processes of globalization of world economy observed in recent decades, have conflicting implications for the economic development of many countries. Currently two opposite points of view on globalization as a factor in the balanced development of the world economy co-exist. According to the first position, globalization is a ‘zero-sum game’: it gives a gain to relatively more developed countries, and it gives losses to less developed (developing) countries.  Ã‚  

International Law †Definition Essay Example for Free

International Law – Definition Essay There have been many attempts at codifying the laws governing international activities. An international law essentially governs international activities, or activities that have international implications, between two sovereign nations or entities by common rules, standards and conditions. The concept of legally binding agreements with an international scope was first introduced by Jeremy Bentham in the last quarter of the 18th Century (ILC, 2009). Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher who first coined the idea of an international law that would regulate all important activities or aspects of international activities like commerce, justice, high sea activity, illegal acts, sovereignty, self defense and crime (Britannica, 2009). International law is inherently different from other laws as it primarily addresses the concerns of nations and not private citizens. It can legally be categorized into three different legal disciplines: 1. Public international law deals with common law issues between sovereign states and international organizations. Legal areas that are covered under the ambit of Public international law include international crime, high sea issues and humanitarian laws. 2. Private international law also called as conflict of laws, addresses the issue of ‘private relations’ across national borders and decides on the jurisdiction of the law. It has its roots in all the conventions, model laws, sovereign laws, legal guides, and all other documents and related instruments that govern such international relationships (ASIL, 2009). 3. Supranational law also called the law of supranational organizations, governs regional agreements between two international entities and distinguishingly nullifies laws of the respective nations in a situation of conflict with their sovereign laws. Public International Law Public international law relates to the form and ‘conduct’ of individual states and various organizations across the globe. Over a period of time, there has been an increased international activity and globalization has further enabled internationalization of issues. These issues, whether, economic, geo-political, environmental, criminal or else, find their right place under the ambit of Public international law. Public international law mainly has two branches that that deal with international issues. ‘jus gentium’ or ‘Law of nations’ was initially used by the Roman empire when they dealt with foreigners. Law of nations is a common law among nations that deals with issues like peace and war, extraditions, national boundaries and international diplomatic exchanges (Wiki, 2009). The other branch of Public international law, known as ‘Jus inter gentes’, also finds its roots in the Roman law system. This branch mainly deals with international treaties, conventions and other agreements between sovereign nations and international organizations. Public international law is also used to address sovereignty issues of nations, their boundary issues and jurisdictions. They also identify the legal responsibilities of a state, their jurisdiction of a territory and other territorial issues. This may lead to a situation of conflict between the international law itself and the sovereign state. Private International Law Private international law as described earlier addresses the issues between two private international entities. This branch of law regulates all the lawsuits that involve an element ‘foreign’ in nature and ones that may result in different interpretations and judgments depending on the jurisdiction of the subject (Collier, 2001). Private international law, in a situation of conflict between two international entities, determines if the proposed forum has any jurisdiction at all over the conflict situation. It then analyses and decides on the ability of competing state laws in dealing with the dispute. This branch of international law is also responsible for enforcement of the law. The term ‘conflict of Laws’ generally refers to the disparities between laws and reflects this disparity irrespective of the fact whether the legal system is international or inter-state. The term ‘conflict of laws’ is used by countries with common law system whereas the term Private international law is used more appropriately in cases where civil law countries are involved. The term that was initially used by and American lawyer and Judge Joseph Story for a common gamut of international laws, was discarded later by the common law researchers but was adopted by civil law lawyers (Collier, 2009). Since Private international law deals with international territorial disputes and also decides on legal jurisdictions of nation states, it is generally not easy to enforce decisions. There are two different lines of legal thinking that that try to define this law. One called ‘universalism’ is a stream of thinking where the researchers believe that this branch of law is a part of international law and applies in uniformity and is legally binding to all the nation states. The other group of researchers claims it to be ‘particularism’, according to which each state has its own unique norms of private international laws and pursues them in line with its policies. There are two major areas of functioning for Private international law. ‘Sensu stricto’ or narrow sense comprises of these set of rules and guidelines that actually determine the applicability of law of a nation in relation to the dispute. ‘Sensu lato’, also called as broader sense, comprises of a set of legal guidelines that has a direct bearing on material norms crossing the borders of a state (Collier, 2009). This branch of Private international law normally deals with global issues like international insurance, realty and financial disputes. It was in 1834 that Joseph Story’s treatise on the conflict of laws introduced the contemporary field of conflicts to the system of international law. His work had a great influence on the further legal research done on English laws and thus became the heart of Private international laws for most of the commonwealth countries. Sources of International law International law has evolved over a period of time and has its roots in the Middle Eastern and European history. It was Muhammad al-shaybani who first introduced the Law of the Nations at the end of the 8th century. These were the early legal treaties that explored applications of Islamic ethical code of conduct, and Islamic economic and military jurisprudence in relation to international law. Even though these treaties were in their nascent stage as per today’s complexity of issues, they still covered a number of areas under the ambit of international law, including treaties involving diplomats and diplomatic issues, issues of war, hostages and prisoners of war, and also women, children and civilian protection issues, especially during conflicts (wiki, 2009). The first ever treaties discovered in European history were written by a philosopher, theologist and jurist, Francisco de Vitoria, a staunch Roman Catholic, in late 16th century. Most of these legal opinions by the researchers were greatly influenced by the Islamic International laws that were the only legal International law treaties that took shape in the previous few centuries. Another legal scholar Hugo Grotius in the early 17th century further researched on the international treaties governing international laws and was credited for his legal endeavors (Wiki, 2009). The concept of sovereignty further evolved from the 17th century to the early 20th century in Europe. It was in Munster, in 1648, Germany that the first such instance of any treaty governing the concept of international law called ‘Peace of Westphalia’ took shape. This is when nationalism took precedence and people started identifying themselves with a certain nation-state. It was in the United States that history saw for the first time a modern instrument of international law take shape. Lieber Code was passed in 1863 by the Congress of the United States to govern actions of US forces involved with the civil war (Wiki, 2009). This was the first ever written law detailing guidelines and rules of war that were adhered to by all the civilized nations. The sources of International law are various resource materials and the processes that have shaped it over a period of time. Most of these processes or the building blocks of rules were greatly influenced by the politics in general and the legal theories by the researchers or philosophers. The decisions taken by the judges and the writings by the jurists are considered the auxiliary sources for the development of the international law. The international treaties between nation states and organizations, and the customs are also considered international laws of equivalent legitimacy (Wiki, 2009). As per the International Court of Justice, Customs are considered a primary source for International law, along with general principles of law and various treaties. International law and Customs Customary law is already acknowledged by the International Court of Justice by a statute in Article 38(1) (b), and is also incorporated in United Nations charter by Article 92 (Villiger, 1985). Customary laws are applied by international agencies in addressing the issues related to international disputes where the application of customs is considered an equivalent to the general practice accepted a part of International law applicable to the dispute. As a thumb rule, as and when a practice becomes a custom, it is applicable to all the member states of the international community. These states are bound by these customary principles whether or not they have consented for it, unless they opposed it from the start. Customs have long been a primary source for International law. Even though codification of customary laws took place in 1899 and 1907 in the Hague and Geneva conventions, some customs that were codified, like the ‘laws of the war’, had long been the part of international customs. The new codification of customary civil laws developed over a period of time since the middle ages. The customary expressions of law that were repetitive and were widely accepted within a particular community were written into laws by the local jurists. An example of such law would be ‘custom of Paris’ that regulated the community within Parisian region (Villiger, 1985). The term ‘customary law as a part of International law, also refers to the legal norms that were developed over a period of time and with customary exchanges between two independent states either through diplomacy or with wars. Though customary laws are not considered as superior as other laws written by statute or treaties in the International law system and are loosing their influence, they still are considered and recognized as building blocks for the ever evolving international laws and given great thought in most of the scholarly works by jurists. We may find examples of strong customary laws across the globe, like the Canadian aboriginal law, that have a constitutional backing and thus have an increasing influence over deciding factors (Villager, 1985).

Individualistic And Holistic Biases In Environmental Ethics

Individualistic And Holistic Biases In Environmental Ethics Environmental ethics is a hybrid of both ancient and recent insights and is a discipline in the making. In addition, this is a discipline whose time has come and has come urgently. The magnitude and urgency of contemporary environmental problems known as environmental crisis form the mandate for environmental ethics. In other words, environmental ethics is a re-examination of the human attitudes and values that influence individual behaviour and government policies towards nature. The principle approaches to environmental ethics are biocentrism, egocentrism. Other topics which are related are ecofeminism and deep ecology. Moral pluralism in environmental ethics insists that we endorse all of these approaches, and employ any one of them according to circumstances. Another long-standing controversy in the philosophy is the debate between methodological individualists and methodological holists. The former hold that social facts and phenomena are reducible without remainder to facts about individuals. The latter, advocates of methodological holism argue that there are some social facts that are not reducible to facts about individuals, and that social phenomena can sometimes be adequately explained without reference to individuals. One should take into consideration that there is no necessary connection between support for methodological individualism or holism and ones position vis-Ã  -vis the naturalism debate. Nonetheless there is a tendency that naturalist people embrace methodological individualism. Still, the naturalists are also found in the holist camp. There are several philosophers who argue about individualistic environmental ethics. Two of them are Peter Singer and Tom Regan. The work of Singer and Regan generated a significant and critical response among philosophers. Many of these criticisms followed the same idea. Peter Singer is the one leading thinker who raised the profile of ethical reflection in relation to animals in our world. Some philosophers including Regan, challenge the utilitarian basis of Singers programme. Singer does not form any principle against causing animals to suffer. Singer argues that humans are different from animals, so equal consideration does not entail equal or identical treatment. Further interest and suffering are not alike. Not all interests deserve to be treated equally, and not all suffering is created equal (Desjardins 2006, p.115). According to Regan and Singer, we need to be very selective in our decisions regarding our everyday life, and we have to choose properly our type of lifestyle. We need to limit ourselves to eat meat so that we can conserve animals from the ecosystem. Moreover, both of them argue that we need to be vegetarian, and Singer continues that the boundary of considerability should be drawn somewhere between shrimp and oyster (Desjardins 2006, p.116). On the other hand, Regan most often speaks in general terms about animals but he argues that the subject of a life criterion applies to mentally normal mammals of a year or a more (Regan 1983, p.78). In my opinion, this is a very unrealistic view of the world because an ecosystem is made up of both humans and animals. If we all choose to be vegetarian than the ecosystem will be unbalanced, leading to an overpopulation of animals because animals will continue to produce without being reduced by humans. Moreover, I think that other species will ta ke over the habitat of others because of the overpopulation and this may lead to many disasters. I believe that, people are part of an ecosystem in order that the world can be balanced accordingly. However, in certain cases we find several abuses-one of them being illegal hunting which causes many endemic species to become extinct. There should always be a balance. Moreover, Regan argues that his right-based ethics, like most traditional ethical theories is individualistic. This means that ethics is concerned with protecting and promoting the well-being of individuals, not communities or societies or someones common good. This puts him at odds with many environmental and ecological thinking which is holistic where many environmentalists emphasise biotic communities or ecosystems rather than individual members which include humans of those communities. Regan warns us of environmental fascism in which individual rights are willingly sacrificed to the greater good of the whole. Environmental fascism and the rights view are like oil and water: they dont mix (Regan 1983, p.362, cited in Desjardins 2006, p.116). In addition, Regan argues that only individual animals can be said to have moral standing or, more specifically, to have rights. In Regans view, an animal that is of an endangered species has no special moral status. Singers view recognizes that it is conceivable that human interference could improve the conditions of wild animals. Moreover, he recommends a policy of leaving wild animals alone as much as possible. In fact he states that we do enough if we eliminate our own unnecessary killing and cruelty towards other animals (Singer 1990, p.227 as cited in Donaldson and Kymlicka 2011, p.159). Singer argues that we have the greater responsibility of reducing suffering than that to increase happiness. In addition, Regan endorsed the similar idea proposed by Singer that is, as long as we protect the rights of animals, other ecological concerns will take care of themselves. In my opinion, it is not a selective choice to let extinct species become endemic because they are part of the eco system for quite a good reason. I think that if those endangered species become endemic than other species cannot benefit from their benefits that contribute to the ecosystem. This is because specie in every community serves to be a prey and also, in itself, it is a predator. If this specie becomes endemic than the prey cannot eat it anymore, and the specie itself cannot kill other animals. The ecosystem is always like a chain in which one factor contributes to the other factor and in which every single step is important for the ecosystem. I believe that, we need first to reverse the long history of destruction and habitat loss before we could preserve biotic communities. In addition, the idea that some untamed wilderness untouched by human activities is a mirage. No place on earth, no animal on earth and no period on earth has escaped human influence for quite some time. The question is not whether we should actively influence the wilderness but how we should do so. For Singer and Regan it seems that the paradigms of holders of moral values are human beings. Thus only animals that are like us can have moral standing. Moral standing seems a benefit that is derived from human nature and that living beings receive only if they are similar to human beings. On the other hand, there are several philosophers who have different ideas about the holistic idea of the environment such as Rolston Holmes and J. Baird Callicott. A holistic idea of the environment deals with environments that must focus their moral concern on the interdependent functioning of the entirely ecological system and not merely on the isolated individuals who make up the system. Holmes as a representative of most environmental ethics encourages us to recognize the inherent worth of nature. According to him, an emphasis on intrinsic value, would preclude the development of a holistic environmental ethic. In fact he argues that the for what it is in itself facet of intrinsic becomes problematic in a holistic web. It is too internal and elementary; it forget relatedness and externality (Holmes 1982, p.146). Holmes has argued that nature should not be treated as a mere resource to be used but rather as a source of what we value. In fact he states One is not so much looking t o resources as sources, seeking relationships is an elemental stream of being with transcending integrities (Holmes 1983, p.183). For Holmes nature as a source of value is then itself intrinsically valuable. Holmes believed that one has to spent time with nature to be an environmentalist. Wilderness is nature which has never been locked and framed is rare. Nature is something that has been through biological processes. We do own gratitude towards biodiversity. Another thing which we value in nature is autopoeisis which means self-making. Many philosophers have argued that this defines life. Life is able to come to a certain extent. Beauty and integrity mean that it has not been whole. Holmes believed that man does not fit in nature. However, in my opinion this is not correct because we came out of wilderness. Many environmental philosophers take up the value and try to see where it comes from. Holmes understands that one has to consider the laws of nature. Holmes argues that it can be good to follow nature but also bad to follow nature. He argues that it is bad when you follow it too much. Humans also damage and modify the environment. Holmes says that this is not natural because we move things around too much. Non-human beings do not modify their environment the way that we do. According to Holmes, anything that completely upsets the balance is not natural and therefore wrong. Like Holmes, Callicott is suspicious of ethical preoccupations with individual nonhuman creatures. Callicott does not deny the fact that individual creatures can have a place as individuals in the sphere of ethical regard. However, he argues that, it is not their well-being as individuals that should be our concern. Rather, it is the well-being of the biotic community of which they are a part and to which they contribute. Callicott insists that environmental ethics locates ultimate value in the biotic community and assigns differential moral value to the constitutive individuals relative to the standards (Callicott 1980, p.337). The systems of individuals ecosystems, species and communities might be a more proper focus than those individuals themselves. One of the motivating concerns, theoretically and practically, is that we should place value on the organization of systems and communities. Following Leopold, J.Baird Callicott argues that there is intrinsic value in the integrity, stability and beauty of ecological systems (Callicott 1989, p.83). Balancing the apparent need to value systems as well as individuals has served to generate a different set of normative principles. Callicott considers this to be an entirely new ethic which will be considered below. Klonoski (1991) in his paper about Callicott holism also presents Callicotts argument about environmental ethic holism. He points out Callicotts idea that in order of the biotic community and to assign value and to prescribe legitimate use of the constituents of the community in a way that contributes to the unity, harmony and balance of the eco-system (Callicott U.d, as cited in Klonoski 1991, p.99). But the problem of shaping a value theory such that it can accommodate both individualistic value and systemic value is daunting. Callicotts holism was criticised due to insufficient room for any intrinsic value apart from the value of the system. Callicott sustains that human activities, such as agriculture and suburban and exurban development, provide some organisms with excellent habitat. But the habitats of many other organisms are severely degraded by the cultural modifications of landscapes that characterize contemporary industrial civilization. These organisms need places that are otherwise suitable for them where modifications of that kind are prohibited (Callicott 2000, p.29). Callicotts system is monistic; there is only one value, instantiated in a principle that has moral weight. Another philosopher who had a clear idea about environmental ethics is Arne Naess who had the idea of self-realization. This means that the ideal of developing ones highest potential skews the notion of value not only towards living entities but also towards those that are analogues of human beings. In my opinion, I do agree with this idea because one has to self-realise him/herself in order to be able to live in a community. In addition, if this does not happen, one does not take care of the environment and of what happens around us. We should take care of the environment because once it is exploited it takes a longer time to revert to its original state. However, this is not an issue that all people agree with because, most often, people do exploit what they have and then this result in different consequences. I believe that, the ecosystem should be made up of both humans and animals. In addition, I think that each specie has an important role to play in the ecosystem, and this is because each specie has its advantages and disadvantages in the ecosystem. If, over a period of time, there is any endemic specie, then there should be another specie which takes its role. However, most often this does not happen and this leads to different disasters. A clear example of what I am stating is when in Malta there was a type of insect the red weevil that was imported with foreign palm trees inferring. This showed that they were not being eaten by other animals, and thus they did a lot of damage to the Maltese palm trees. A specie in an ecosystem is like a link in a whole chain and if one link is broken the chain is broken too! I do disagree with Regans idea that an endemic species should not be protected. In fact I argue that we should spend some time with nature like Rolston suggests in order to admire how precious our environment is. Moreover, I think that there should be more emphasis on mans responsibility. When someone comes in contact with nature he should make sure that it should be kept as it was found because once it is exploited the effects are disastrous. It is difficult to reverse the damage and bring back nature to its original state. In my opinion the holistic view of environmental biases is more practical especially in our everyday world. There are different views of how one can respect the environment around us. The most important thing is that we do our outmost to leave part of the environment in its natural state without construction because it is our contribution to those that come after us. Most often people do not even notice how little things can harm species, not only on the earth but also marine species which are also an important part of the ecosystem. In my opinion, although nowadays there are more environmental organisations there should be more awareness of how our modelling with the eco system can affect nature around us. God created nature in order to be used but also to be protected accordingly.

Caborn - Geography :: essays research papers fc

Caborn   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The topographic map that is the study area is the Caborn quadrangle. This area is located in the southwest area of Indiana and on the south is bordering the Ohio River. The topography of this area is pocketed with gently rolling hills with the largest depression in the land just north of the Ohio River with Goose pond located in the center of it. This study area is located in the Wabash lowland of Indiana and its bedrock consists of mainly of shale and sandstone. There is also a thin layer of bedrock consisting of limestone, clay and coal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are three major routes of transportation through this area which are the Ohio River, the railroad, and highway 62. The Ohio River in the southern area of the study region is one of the main transportation routes. The Southwind Maritime Center is a river port located on the Ohio River and is located on the west side of the map. This port is a state-of-the-art river port with advanced material handling technologies. The port is specifically designed to handle in or out bound container cargo. The port is also a designated Foreign Trade Zone providing advantages to companies in this area involved in international trade. This Port is more than 740 acres and is home to a wide variety of companies. The Southwind Maritime Center is also easily accessible by railroad and a four-lane freeway as shown on map where they are located just north of the port. The railroad as shown on the map runs from the northeastern corner to the mid-west side. Highway 62 runs from the ea st to west along the middle of the map. The highway and railroad provide transportation routes back and forth between Mount Vernon and Evansville. The Caborn quadrangle is located in Posey County, Indiana. There are 491 farms in Posey County. Eighty-five percent of the total land in this county is farmland according to Bureau of the Census in 1992. According to the Bureau of Labor statistics about forty percent of the work force in Posey County works some sort of manufacturing job and this shows the importance of Southwind Maritime center to this region. The study area has a humid, continental climate with warm summers and cool winters. The average temperatures for this region vary from 37 F in the winter to 80 F in the summer.

Pet Overpopulation: Cause and Effect of Homeless Pets Essay -- cause a

A harmless visit to the neighborhood pet store turns into a ruthless encounter for me. Every Saturday, Pecan (my dog) and I visit a local pet store to purchase food and treats for her. Pecan and I pass by a dozen of shelter volunteers eagerly showcasing homeless dogs before entering the pet store. Shelter volunteers are special because they are willing to devote their Saturday morning to help homeless pets. On the way I stop and great each volunteer and dog, then I walk away emotionally grieving and trying to holding back tears. My sadness soon turns into anger, when I realize I cannot adopt every homeless pet. The pet population is a increasing crisis in America. In this essay I will discuss the cause and effect of homeless pets, I will begin by explain the anatomy that contributes to pet overpopulation, then I will discuss the consequences encompassing animal breeding, then I will examine the social stance that effects pets, lastly I will conclude by suggesting soluti ons. First, I will begin by introducing the correlation between anatomy and the pet population. T...

Essay --

The Sweet Spot is Pretty Sweet Everyone knows that the sweet spot is the best place to hit a ball on a bat, but what really makes this the best place? The sweet spot is a very important spot on the bat, and without it, the ball will barely leave the infield. When someone hits the ball on the sweet spot, it feels very different from hitting the ball on the end of the bat or by the hands. Hitting the ball on the sweet spot makes it so the batter does not even feel the collision. There will be no vibrations, so therefore no stinging, when the batter hits the right area on the bat. Batters also have a hard time trying to extend through the ball when they do not hit the sweet spot. It is easy to extend and push the ball farther when the ball is hit on the sweet spot. Also, when the ball hits the sweet spot, all of the energy will go with the ball, making it go faster and farther. When the ball hits somewhere else on the bat, the bat will take a lot of the energy away from the ball making the ball not go as far. The swe et spot has more behind it than one would think, it differs in various types of bats, and it is the best place to hit the ball on a bat. There are many different definitions for the sweet spot of a bat. Most people who do not know much about the sweet spot would define it as the place on the bat where the ball goes the farthest when it is hit. They could also define it as the location that produces hardly any vibrational sensation, or sting, in the batter’s hands. But there are many more scientific definitions that the majority of people will not fully understand. It can be defined as the center of percussion, as well as the region between the nodes of the first two vibrational modes on the bat. Lastly, it is defined as ... ...uding the players themselves can have their own meaning of what the sweet spot is. Also, the sweet spot is located in almost the same place for both aluminum and wood bats, and there are not many differences between the two’s sweet spots. There are many elements in the bat when a ball hits the sweet spot, but the major one is the bending modes. These modes are extremely important for a bat, because they create the nodes that make up the sweet spot. Another important definition of the sweet spot is that it is the center of percussion. Then lastly, the sweet spot is the best place to hit the ball on the bat. There is no vibration or pain, and the hitter is pretty much guaranteed a good hit if they hit the sweet spot. The next time a batter gets a perfect hit, think about all of the things going on inside and outside of the bat when the ball hits the sweet spot.

Public Education Essay

A free public education is one of the many aspects of American culture that makes it one of the most desirable countries in which to live.   In fact, education in America has been a standard duty of the government, particularly the states, since public schools were begun in the days of the pilgrims and pioneers.   Unfortunately, as the years progressed, education became more complex and more rigidly structured. Conversely, achievement seemed to lag behind the acceptable level.   Therefore, learning for learning’s sake was replaced by the trend towards higher and higher standardized test scores.   Bush’s No Child Left Behind (NCLB) mandate pushed schools and teachers into greater accountability processes.   Schools created scripted curriculum guides that left little room for creativity.   The competitive march towards the highest scale score was on!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unfortunately, to the school systems, its employees and its students, failure to march properly carried stiff penalties.   Schools faced a variety of sanctions if scores did not rise to the appropriate level or at the appropriate rate.   First, schools faced state or even federal intervention. Evaluative and prescriptive teams would enter the schools to mandate changes in policy, curriculum and even staffing.   Another obstacle was parental choice.   For the wealthier, private schools have been an alternative to lagging public schools for years, but in the early 1990s, the school voucher plan made this option viable to a wider spectrum of families.   Ultimately, the voucher propositions never passed the state legislatures (Pipho, 1994). A few years later, charter schools developed outside the sphere of both public and private schools.   These charter schools developed as a way to reform schools and received funds from private organizations and business.   The idea took off even though researchers are quick to note that charter schools have done little to raise test scores (Vine, 1997)   Lastly, the idea of merit pay directly appealed to the pocketbooks of teachers and administrators by offering monetary reward for good scores.   While observers feel it is wrong to base a teacher’s pay just on his test scores, researchers feel that â€Å"because the amounts involved are relatively small, it’s worth experimenting†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Keller, 2006).   Each of these new options moved American education closer and closer to the idea of privatizing schools.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The privatization of schools has now expanded to include the realm of educational consulting.   These high-paid individuals are hired by the school systems to aid individual schools in planning strategies for curriculum, classroom management, discipline, finance, and teacher recruiting, to name a few (Sheffer, 2002).   In 1994, the Minneapolis school system became the first to hire a consulting firm to run their district.   In California, the state superintendent of public instruction was a man who had a background in business as a consultant who helps financially ailing corporations (Pipho, 1994). In 1997, Phyllis Vine reported that twenty-eight states had passed legislation to provide for the hiring of management companies.   In the last nine years that number has grown, with both positive and negative reactions from the customers.   Teachers complained that the new curriculum was too restrictive and gave them no freedom to teach what they wanted.   The consultant responded by asserting that restrictiveness was needed to get the teachers, kids and schools back on track (Hayden, 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The decision to link private business to school systems does make sense for some.   Sheffer notes that â€Å"the obvious similarities between academic work and consulting are the emphasis on analytic thinking, writing and the focus on research† (2002) Thus, more and more states are turning to educational consulting firms to help them refocus on their educational goals.   On such state is Mississippi.   Mississippi, as a state, has typically been at the bottom of lists comparing states’ educational achievements.   In the 2005 Smartest State rankings published by Morgan Quitno Press, Mississippi fell two spots from the previous year to 49th   (â€Å"Vermont,2005†). Spencer, (2004), attempts to explain the state’s low achievement and scores by pointing to the socioeconomic and achievement gaps between white students and minority students.   Even in younger grades, the black and Hispanic subgroups lagged behind the white students in language and reading.   In middle school, the gap widened alarmingly.   Ninety-six of white students scored at proficiency or better in language, and 94% scored at this same level in reading. But Hispanic students’ numbers were 9 percentage points lower in both areas than whites, while black students were 8 points lower in language and 19 points lower in reading.   He goes on to note that the problem got progressively worse in the 1990s.   Overall, by high school, â€Å"only one in 50 Hispanic and black 17-year-olds can read and gain information from specialized text-such as the science section of a newspaper – compared to about one in 12 white students† (Spencer, 2004). Yet, when education officials like Randy McCoy, who is the Tupelo Superintendent, are confronted with these figures, they are quick to point out that students of all races do well and students of all races do not do well.   The fear seems to be that teachers will be accused of teaching students of different races differently.   Yet, Mike Walters, who is a former Tupelo Superintendent, agrees that the achievement gap is due to a difference in expectations. He points to the strongest teachers and notes that their students, regardless of race and socioeconomic status, achieve.   Walters offers, â€Å"We are not expecting students to achieve, and expectations are everything† ( Spencer, 2004).  Ã‚   The Tupelo district is about 65 % white with most students from lower income homes.   Its scores have held steady in the low 80% passing range with an odd surge into the mid 90s in 2003 (â€Å"Mississippi DOE Test Data†).   JBHM has recently started working with the Tupelo Municipal schools. (â€Å"Experience,† n.d.). One way Mississippi is trying to combat their ailing system is by restructuring its testing program.   In September of 2000, the Mississippi Board of Education (MBOE) approved State Board Policy IHF-1.   IHF-1 changed the graduation requirements beginning with the freshman class entering in 2000.   Among the requirements was to pass the subject area test English II, generally administered in the 10th grade.   Thus, the first available scores for the class entering in 2000 were recorded in 2001 (â€Å"MBOE,† 2000).   This group was expected to graduate in 2004. Another way is by hiring a local educational consulting group to help them work with curriculum.   Former Tupelo Superintendent, Mike Walters is now a consultant with the JBHM Education Group in Jackson.   JBHM is a general consulting agency that also operates the JBHM Education Group, LLC.    This group was opened in 2000 as â€Å"an educational management services company with a mission of assisting school communities in their efforts to better organize themselves, and, in turn give the families the support needed to ensure the success of their children† (â€Å"Services,† n.d.).   According to the group, the consults go into the schools and analyze the areas of need as specified by the hiring body.   They then, if directed, design a curriculum fashioned after Robert Marzano’s â€Å"viable curriculum,† one of his eleven factors of student achievement (Marzano, 2003) JBHM’s mission was developed by Mike Walters and cofounder Gary Bailey.   It is simply â€Å"to enhance a school’s ability to prepare children for success† (Vickers, 2005. p. 3).   JBHM has focused recently on developing curriculums for algebra, biology, English, United Sates history and middle school math.   Walters says, â€Å"These are highly-structured, full-blown plans that start with day one and go through the end of the school year† (Vickers, 2005, p. 3) JBHM, as of their most recent website posting, serves 34 school districts in Mississippi.   The do work in other states, including their contract deal of March 2006 totaling 1.6 million dollars to work with the Caddo School District in Louisiana (Brumble, 2006).   They achieved this contract by boasting statistics that ninety percent of the schools they assisted showed a rise in test scores (Brumble, 2006).   Undoubtedly numerous Mississippi schools are on this list. According to the Mississippi Board of Education Agenda from September 10, 2004, a contract was approved with the JBHM Education Group to â€Å"assist in providing technical assistance to implement the school improvement process in Priority Schools (â€Å"MBOE,† 2004).   As explained in a news release dated December of 2004, â€Å"Schools that do not meet achievement goals or show expected academic improvement receive a ranking of Level I (Low Performing) with the lowest of these deemed ‘Priority Schools’ †Ã‚   (â€Å"Town Meetings†¦, 2004). Part of the new Board Policy IHF-1 makes passing the English II test required for graduation for the graduating class of 2004, who were first tested in 2000/2001 school year. These first scores were used for developing scale scores, according to the Mississippi Statewide Testing Program website. The English II test, which replaces the previous language and reading tests mentioned in earlier, has been consistently difficult for low achieving schools in Mississippi.   Betty Rose Breazeeale, the Lamar County testing coordinator, agreed by saying that she recognized the need to work on the English II, adding that â€Å"It is our lowest score, and I think that’s a statewide problem† (Mees, 2005).   According to the Mississippi Department of Education Subject Area Content Test website, the English II test   measures knowledge of language conventions, reading comprehension and effective writing skills†¦The test consists of two separate administration:   English II Multiple Choice and English II Writing†¦The 85 multiple-choice, passage-based items are divided into two sections:   Language Conventions and Reading Comprehension.   The writing test includes four writing prompts – two narrative mode prompts and two informative mode prompts.   Students will select and respond to one of the narrative prompts and one of the informative prompts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Even though the MBOE approved the contract for JBHM to consult in Priority Schools statewide in 2004, some districts had already contracted its services well before then.   These districts paid for the services themselves through grants or other local funding mechanisms.   The Tunica school board hired JBHM Education Group for the 2000/2001 school year (Hayden 2002).   The Hinds district is actually featured on the JBHM Education Group website, boasting its rise in scores from 2001 to 2003.   Others, like the North Bolivar and Neshoba joined the club as a result of the Priority School initiative administered by the MBOE.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All scores on the English II tests may be compared to the figures reported on the Mississippi Statewide Testing Program website administered by the MDOE.   They report figures for 2002 as 70% passing the multiple choice reading and 84% passing the narrative/informative writing test.   In 2003 these percentages rose to 78 and 94 respectively, and settled into 85% and 84% narrative/89% informative for 2004.   It should be noted that in 2004, the state began reporting the writing portion of the test as two separate scores, listing the narrative first, then the informative.   Analysis seems to indicate that scores dropped slightly when this shift took place with the greater drop being in the narrative score (â€Å"MDOE Test Data†). One of the first schools to take advantage of the JBHM consultants, the Hinds AHS school is worthy of its spot on the JBHM website.   Hinds County School District is a fairly large district.   Hinds AHS is described as a rural, integrated school with an average to below-average socio-economic base (â€Å"Hinds AHS,†Ã‚   2006). Beginning with passing rates at only 18% on the English II multiple choice test and 40% on the writing portion when JBHM came aboard, they jumped to 22%   and 55% respectively in one year and, from there, to 77% and 92% respectively in the second year ( â€Å"MDOE Test Data†) . For the county itself, which contains seventeen high schools in the area of Clinton,   Mississippi, the scores went from passing rates of 72% (reading) and 75% (writing) in 2001 to an 81% in reading and a an 83% in writing (â€Å"Mississippi Test Data†).   In the JBHM-operated school (Hinds AHS), more remarkable gains were noted, while other high schools showed less of an improvement.   It is hard to deny Hind AHS’s phenomenal rises in English II scores.   They started out well below the rest of the county and ended up with a passing rate higher than the district average. The Tunica district, an even more rural, plantation area of Mississippi has a past that is â€Å"rooted in Tunica’s plantation lifestyle and its racial separatism. Tunica is a tiny white island in a majority black county† (Parker, 2002).   Ã‚  Rose Fort High school, associated with JBHM since the onset of the new testing requirements, is comprised of extremely poor black students with only 1 % white and 1% other racial students (â€Å"Rose Fort High,† 2006).   JBHM director Mike Walters recognizes how Tunica’s social issues are reflected in its education when he says, â€Å"Tunica is in a community-building stage right now.   They are divided racially still.   You can’t just dump money in a community like that and expect things to happen.   It’s going to take a long, long time. (Hayden 2002).   Despite its circumstances, however, this single Tunica high school has also made some significant gains in English II scores.   The data was not recorded for 2001, but the 2002 scores of 33% passing on the multiple choice portion and the 57% passing on the writing portion jumped to 54% and 83% respectively in only one year (â€Å"MDOE Test Data†).   Again, the advances are astounding. Lamar school district also serves a rural county.   It, like Tunica, far exceeds the state average of students on free and reduced lunch, which is generally the yardstick for measuring the socioeconomic population of a school.  Ã‚   The only difference is that students in Lamar are predominantly white.     Only one high school of the four reflects a more integrated population (â€Å"Lamar High Schools, † 2006).   Their English II scores have shown growth as well.   The reading and writing scores have risen from the 87 and 89 percent passing to highs of 92 and 95 percent passing in two years with an odd dip in the reading multiply choice scores in 2004. (â€Å"MDOE Test Data†).   Even though Lamar began in a less desperate situation, its gains with the help of consultants are also significant.   Though the percentage gain seems less impressive, most educators realize that gains like this are harder to achieve as students scores improve and that each subsequent gain is definitely cause for celebration. Neshoba school district located in Philadelphia, Mississippi, is a more integrated district that has shown gains through the use of consulting.   Classified as a small town district, the students in Neshoba’s four high schools are more integrated than those in Lamar or Tunica . While more students than the state average qualify for free or reduced lunch, they are socioeconomically better off than Lamar or Tunica students (â€Å"Neshoba County,† 2006). Paid for by a NCLB grant, JBHM began consulting in Neshoba County for the current, 2005/2006, school year to aid primarily with English II and Algebra I in its high schools (Edwards, 2006). The county’s English II scores in 2002 were 67% passing in reading and 76 % passing in writing.   The scores rose in 2003 to 85% and 89% respectively, but then in 2004 rose to an 89% in reading but fell to 86 % in writing (â€Å"MDOE Test Data†).   Some schools fared worse than others.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The system hopes to post scores in the 90s with the consulting firm if the teacher can get on board.   Joey Blount, principal of Neshoba Central High School, admits to Edwards that the presence of the consultants and the frequent observations make his teachers nervous.   â€Å"Anytime you’ve got people coming to observe your work, it’s going to be an uncomfortable situation† (Edwards, 2006).   Superintendent for curriculum and instruction Beth Jackson concurs.   â€Å"Change can be very difficult for a lot of people, but in some areas we needed change.   We weren’t happy with our test scores.   I think they (the teachers) realize we needed to change, but some are better at it than others (Edwards, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Likewise, the administrators in Moss Point and Meridian Schools are also impressed.   Tressie Harper, Moss Point Superintendent, is proud of the gains made in her students’ English II scores.   Moss Point has been working with JBHM since 2003 and in that time has noticed a steady increase in reading scores from 55% in 2002 to 60% in 2003 to 63% in 2004 (Vickers, 2005 and â€Å"MDOE Test Data†) to 75% in 2005 (â€Å"Moss Point High School,† 2005). As in Neshoba and Lamar, the writing scores seemed the most erratic rising from 74% to 91% to 71% to 75% in the same four years (â€Å"MDOE Test Data† and â€Å"Moss Point High School,† 2005).   Perhaps this could be explained by the aforementioned change in the reporting of writing test scores in 2004.   It is possible that the focus of the test shifted slightly at that point as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Likewise, the single Meridian high school shows similar improvement in English II with a three year rise in percentage passing scores from 2002 to 2004 from 57 to 74 to 77.  Ã‚   The writing scores showed a similar rise (â€Å"MDOE Test Data†).   Sylvia Autry, Meridian Public School Superintendent claims that she has worked with several educational consultants and that JBHM has been the â€Å"most focused† (Vickers, 2005, p. 3).   Both Moss Point and Meridian are characterized by a slightly higher black than white student body with the majority on free and reduced lunch (â€Å"Moss Point High School, † 2006)   and â€Å"Meridian High School†).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   North Bolivar is another recent addition to JBHM’s client list.   A year ago, the MBOE asked the Governor to deem the North Bolivar School District a state of emergency.   This designation is reserved for school districts that have over half of the schools meeting Priority School status.   State Superintendent Hand Bounds issued to investigations and concluded that the students’ needs were not being met (â€Å"Mississippi Board†¦,† 2005). North Bolivar is an exceptionally poor small town district which is 97% black.  Ã‚   Its reading scores have barely reached 80% (â€Å"MDOE Test Data†).   Score released in 2006 will tell whether or not JBHM will be successful there.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Clearly JBHM consulting or any consulting agency is not necessary for all school districts.   Wealthier more urban areas such as Jackson and Laurel counties consistently post English II scores in the high 80s high 90s.   However, when one compares the multiple choice   scores of Hinds AHS (77% reading), whose population is significantly more challenging based on socioeconomic factors, to Jackson’s (85% reading) , the aforementioned achievement gap appears to be closing. The exact role that JBHM plays in this factor is undetermined since all factors cannot be factored in statistically.   For example, the threats of school closings and consolidations due to a lack of funds plague systems across the country as will as in Mississippi.   One mother in Lamar district commented about the dip in Lamar’s 2004 reading scores; â€Å"They [the students and teachers)] went through so much with the school closings†¦Everybody here was upset. The teachers were upset. If it weren’t for that fear, the scores probably would have been just as good as last year [2003]† (Mees, 2005). In addition, the 2005 hurricane season devastate education in many parts of Mississippi. About 160,000 students in 271 public schools in 44 school districts in the path of the hurricane have been impacted, said Steve Williams, special assistant to the state superintendents. State Superintendent Bounds said that some schools were unable to have classes for 2-3 months.   Some schools were completely destroyed (Hayden, 2005).   Clearly this crisis would impact test scores at all levels.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One thing is clear.   Schools are in need of support services from somewhere.   Initial data seems to indicate that consulting firms, while not the perfect answer, do provide the structured support that some schools need.   Their exorbitant costs will be prohibitive for some school districts, but perhaps with grant programs, they may still benefit from their services.   As the first decade in 2000 pulls to a close, school reform will be steadily underway.   The extent of the change and the consultant’s role in it remain uncertain, but hopeful. References Brumble, Melody. (2006).   â€Å"Caddo School Board Debates Merits of Consulting Proposal.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Shreveport Times.   Retrieved March 29, 2006 from www.shreveporttimes.com/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Apps/pbcs.dll/article?Date=20060321&Category=NEWS†¦. Edwards, Jeff.   (2006).   â€Å"Neshoba Schools Employ Consultant to Improve Scores.†Ã‚   The   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Neshoba Democrat.   Retrieved March 28, 2006 from www.neshobademocrat.com/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   print.asp? ArticleID=12190&SectionID=2&Subsectional. â€Å"Experience.†Ã‚   JBHM Education Group, LLC.   Retrieved on March 26, 2006, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.jbhm-edgroup.com/experience Hayden, Cathy. (2002). â€Å"Schools and More Money:   Plenty of lessons learned.†Ã‚   The Clarion- Ledger. Retrieved on March 29, 2006, from http://orig.clarionledger.com/news/0210/14/m01.html. Hayden, Cathy.   (2005).   â€Å"Angry Parents Want Shelby Schools Chief Fired.† The Clarion-Ledger.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved March 30, 2006 from http://www.clarionledger.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article? AID=/20051113/NEWS/511130388/1†¦. â€Å"Hinds AHS.† (2006).   SchoolTree.Org.     Retrieved March 30, 2006, from,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://mississippi.schooltree.org/counties-page1.html Keller, Bess. (2006).   â€Å"Florida Ready to Demand Bonuses Based on Test Scores.†Ã‚   Education   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Week.   Retrieved March 30, 2006 from http://www.edweek.org/agentk-12articles2006/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   02/22/24fla.h25.html?print=1. â€Å"Lamar High Schools.† (2006).   SchoolTree.Org.     Retrieved March 30, 2006, from,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://mississippi.schooltree.org/counties-page1.html Marzano, Robert J.   (2003). â€Å"11 Factors.†Ã‚   What Works in Schools.   Retrieved March 30, 2006   from   http://www.whatworksinschools.org/factors.cfm. Mees, Reuben. (2005).   â€Å"Area Schools Show Mixed Results on Tests.† Hattiesburg American. Retrieved March 29, 2006, from http://www.hattiesburgamerican.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050818/NEWS01/50 8180301/1002&template=printart. â€Å"Meridian High School.† (2006).   SchoolTree.Org.     Retrieved March 30, 2006, from,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://mississippi.schooltree.org/counties-page1.html â€Å"Mississippi Assessment and Accountability Reporting System.† (2006)   Mississippi Department of Education.   Retrieved March 30, 2006,   from http://orsap.mde.k12.ms.us:8080/MAARS/indexProcessor.jsp. Mississippi Board of Education.   (2000).   Graduation Requirements. (State Board Policy IHF-1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   New Graduation Requirements).   Retrieved March 29, 2006, from http:///www.mde.k12. Ms.us/ACAD/ID/newgrad.html. Mississippi Board of Education. (2004).   Agenda. Jackson, MS:   4th Floor Boardroom Central High. â€Å"Mississippi Board of Education Approves Asking Governor to Declare State of Emergency in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   North Bolivar School District.† News Release. (2005). Mississippi State Board of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Education.   Jackson, MS:   Communications Dept. MBOE. â€Å"Mississippi Department of Education Test Data Retrieval System.†Ã‚   (2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mississippi Department of Education.   Retrieved March 29, 2006, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.mde.k12.ms.us/ACAD/TD04/S9D3LST.HTM. â€Å"Moss Point High School.† (2005).   Great Schools.Net Retrieved March 28, 2006 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.greatschools.net/modperl/achievement/ms/649 â€Å"Moss Point High School.† (2006).   SchoolTree.Org.     Retrieved March 30, 2006, from,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://mississippi.schooltree.org/counties-page1.html â€Å"Neshoba County.† (2006).   SchoolTree.Org.     Retrieved March 30, 2006, from,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://mississippi.schooltree.org/counties-page1.html Parker, Laura.   (2002). â€Å"Abandoned Education:   Tunica’s schools struggle with leftovers and neglect.†Ã‚   APF Reporter 18 (2).   Retrieved March 30, 2006 from www.aliciapatterson.org/APF1802.html Pipho, Chris. (1994). â€Å"Taxes, School Boards, and Higher Education.†Ã‚   Phi Delta Kappan 75 (5),   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   358-359. â€Å"Rose Fort High.† (2006).   SchoolTree.Org.     Retrieved March 30, 2006, from,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://mississippi.schooltree.org/counties-page1.html Sheffer, Hadass.   (2002).   Careers in Educational Counseling.†Ã‚   The Chronicle of Higher   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Education.   Retrieved March 28, 2006, from http://chronicle.com/jobs/news/2002/06/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2002062801c/printable.html. â€Å"Services.†Ã‚   JBHM Education Group, LLC.   Retrieved on March 26, 2006, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.jbhm-edgroup.com/services Spencer, Mack.   (2004).   â€Å"Achievement Gap.†Ã‚   Northeast Mississippi Daily Journal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved March 30, 2006 from http://www.djournal.com/pages/story.asp?ID   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   =59381&pub=1. â€Å"Town Meetings Scheduled for Priority Schools† News Release. (2004). Mississippi State Board   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   of Education.   Jackson, MS:   Communications Dept. MBOE. â€Å"Vermont Named Smartest State.† (2005).   Results of the 2005 Smartest State Awards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved March 30, 2006, from http://www.morganquitno.com/edpress.htm Vickers, Harriet S. (2005) â€Å"Educational Consultant Business Sees Fast-Paced Growth:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ‘Employees have bought into our mission,’ says JBHM Education Group president.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mississippi Business Journal 27 (19), 3. Vine, Phyllis.   (1997).   â€Å"To Market, To Market†¦The School Business Sells Kids Short.† The Nation 265 (7), 11-16.

Multicultural Management in the Virtual Project Setting

MULTICULTURAL MANAGEMENT IN THE VIRTUAL PROJECT SETTING Carlos Galamba, University of Liverpool Introduction The Virtual Project Setting In today’s globalisation era, effective cross-cultural management of virtual teams is an emerging subject in international business literature and practice. Virtual teaming has a number of potential benefits; not only in terms of human resources flexibility but it can also reduce the operating costs of one organisation. On the other hand, the challenges of such environment should not be undermined. Many scholars have attempted to analyse the impact of virtual work in a number of factors such as communication, leadership, trust, decision-making and productivity (Symons and Stenzel, 2007), while others were particularly concerned with the management of geographically dispersed units and therefore addressed the challenges of working with time zone differences and culturally diverse groups (Ardichvili et al. , 2006). The findings are very interesting and the business literature appears to agree that the virtual project setting is somehow different from face-to-face working and more important it brings some unique challenges. This project will review the literature under these headings and explore the critical issues regarding cross-cultural management in the virtual project setting. Based on the theoretical framework for virtual teaming I will attempt to outline solutions and establish a set of best practices for effective international management of such environments. Managing the virtual environment Critical issues The emerging number of virtual teams is a reality in the global market place. The virtual project setting allows organisations to assign the most skilled individuals to projects across the globe, with less concern for travel or elocation expenses, which improves productivity (Rorive and Xhauflair,  2004). However the challenges of managing culturally and geographically diverse teams must not be undermined. Some of the problems and critical issues arise in different areas such as: communication, technology, synergy among team members, culture and time zone differences (Grosse, 2002; Kuruppu arachchi, 2009). In the next pages I will discuss these issues and review the current literature and theoretical framework to outline possible solutions. |COMMUNICATION | |ISSUE |In the bigger picture the most critical factor with regards to communication is the language barrier. Effective | | |communication can be affected when team members speak different native languages. For instance, Bakbone Software, a US| | |company faced communication problems when Japanese workers were employed in their virtual team, due to their flawless | | |English (Alexander, 2000). | |Nevertheless, some cultures prefer a more formal communication than others, and managers must pay special attention to| | |individual needs. There are a number of communication platforms available, such as phone, email, chat and | | |video-conferencing. Selecting the most appropriate method for a virtual project setting is critical for the project’s | | |success. Ardichvili et al. (2006) found significant differen ces in the preferred methods of communication of Russian | | |and Chinese team members. The former are comfortable with email communication whilst the second would rather prefer | | |face-to-face or phone calls. These findings seem to support the distinction between high and low-context cultures | | |established by Hall (1981). | |SOLUTION |A valuable strategy to deal with communication challenges can be achieved by understanding and identifying everyone’s | | |strengths and backgrounds. By recognising different levels of expertise, skills and experience among team members, | | |virtual team leaders can distribute the workload accordingly. | |Lipnack and Stamps (1999), posit three basic steps to overcome obstacles to communication: listening skills, respect | | |and patience. | | |TECHNOLOGY | |ISSUE |The available technology is another critical factor for virtual teams. It is essential that an equal access to | | |technology can be guaranteed to all team members, otherwise productivity can be compromised (Kuruppuarachchi, 2009). | |Broadband services are not ava ilable in every location and some regions may experience slower internet speed than | | |others or may have incompatible networks | |SOLUTION |Ardichvili et al. (2006) posit that the start of the project is crucial and moreover team leaders must choose the most| | |appropriate computer-mediated technology that best suits the needs of team members. One that can be readily available | | |to all users and therefore potential problems in the use of technology must be identified before the virtual project | | |takes place. | | |CULTURE | |ISSUE |Individualism-collectivism is one of the biggest dimensions of cultural variability. The findings by Gudykunst (1997) | | |and Hofstede (1980) suggest that team members from collectivist cultures are less ready to trust others than those | | |from individualistic cultures. | | |Chow et al. (2000) established that individualistic and collectivist cultures make a sharp differentiation between | | |in-group and out-group members, with regards to knowledge sharing. For example, Chinese managers are found to be more | | |reluctant in sharing knowledge with an out-group member when compared to Americans. |SOLUTION |With regards to culture, many scholars agree that cultural awareness is the most effective solution to minimize the | | |negative effects of cross-cultural differences (Mead and Andrews, 2009). Ardichvili et al. (2006) emphasise that | | |leadership must facilitate an environment of cultural adaptation in order to create a unique competitive advantage. | | |Therefore it is essential that managers have the ability to channel culturally-determined behaviours and d ifferent | | |expectations into rich outputs. | |SYNERGY | |ISSUE |To communicate across cultures it is essential that managers can foster an environment of trust and understanding. | | |Several factors, such as repeated interactions, shared experiences and shared social norms, have been found to | | |facilitate the development of trust (Mayer et al. 1995). Many scholars also argue that face-to-face encounters are | | |irreplaceable when it comes to building trust (Ardichvili et al. , 2006). |SOLUTION |Following Ardichvili et al. (2006) findings, it appears essential that virtual team leaders make personal meetings | | |possible, because face-to-face encounters are one of the most critical factors for trust building, particularly at the| | |beginning of the team’s existence. This has been found to be essential in many cases of virtual teams, like Ericsson | | |in China (Lee-Kelley and Sankey, 2008) and the virtual project of the New South Wales police in Australia (Peters and | | |Manz, 2007). | |Nevertheless, in the virtual project setting, this synergy may be difficult to maintain and it is therefore important | | |that virtual organisations consider activities that indirectly create trust, such as group and individual feedback | | |(Walker et al. , 2002 cited in Ardichvili et al. 2006). | | |TIME ZONE DIFFERENCES | |ISSUE |The problem of working in distant geographical locations arises for example when certain activities need to be | | |synchronized or when real time communication is critical for the project. Due to time zone differences, users may not | | |be able to exchange information instantly. For example, the US company BakBone software, faced some challenges in the | | |coordination of its Israeli and US teams, because they have a 7 hour time difference between them (Alexander, 2000). | |SOLUTION |Precise coordination processes can help conquer time-related challenges and help increase production outcomes. | | |Planning of schedules and tasks appears to reduce repetition in discussion (Lee-Kelley and Sankey, 2008). This | | |planning should also be organic, particularly if disruption of planned activities takes place. Additionally, virtual | | |team leaders must ensure that all team members are aware of time-zone differences so that they can plan ahead the best| | |time for communication. | | |Microsoft for example, has overcome some of these issues by using a 24 hour service in some of their virtual teams | | |(Alexander, 2000). | Ethical implications Lee (2009) describes e-ethics as the ethical leadership that is required in the virtual project setting. The need to address ethical issues in virtual teams has increased over the years and appears to be more important in the international business environment. The literature over this subject appears to agree that there is a clear distinction between the issues raised within this new virtual design when compared to more traditional organisations (Lee, 2009). Therefore, based on the problems and solutions identified before, for the multicultural management in the virtual project setting, I will now attempt to review the ethical implications of such issues. Based on the work developed by Lee (2009) I agree that ethic leadership is ultimately the responsibility of the project manager (p. 457). It is up to the leader to ensure that an ethical environment can be followed by the users at all times, and moreover that environment must be encouraged in the organisational design of the virtual project setting. Cranford (1996) highlights that the use of computers that are in different geographic locations can affect the communicative behaviour of the users involved. For instance, the absence of face-to-face interactions can encourage a more aggressive and disrespectful behaviour. Therefore it is up to the project leader to control this environment, and monitor any unethical behaviour as it can have a negative effect on trust and synergy among team members. Moreover, Lee (2009) agrees that it is essential that a code of ethics is available to all users, so that they understand what is acceptable or not in the virtual environment. Another issue identified in the literature regards the potential for social isolation in the virtual community (Lee, 2009), which in turn can affect motivation and commitment to the project. It is up to the project leader to ensure that all users are participative enough and avoid potential morale problems due to the lack of interaction. The latter has been found to be more noticeable in the virtual environment than in traditional organisations (Lee, 2009). There are a number of other ethical issues in the virtual environment, but the ones identified above appear to be those that are directly linked with working in cross-cultural virtual teams that lack face-to-face interaction. It is essential that leaders can effectively manage the unique ethical issues that arise in the virtual setting; in turn this will increase job satisfaction, efficiency and ultimately improve the service value. Case study BankCo Inc. as a result of a fusion of many multinational companies, as an attempt to create a global brand, with similar corporate identity and global standards. The virtual team members are based in many different countries and come from well distinct cultures, for example Greece, UK, Germany and Singapore. It has been suggested that any poor performance or project delays were not related to the virtual team itself, but mo reover were a result of cultural differences and communication problems (Lee-Kelley and Sankey, 2008). For example, some groups considered the excessive number of conference calls to be unproductive and time-consuming. The critical issues Communication With regards to communication, the authors point out that the excessive number of emails, over a 100 per person per day, was seen as negative by many of the users, particularly in the Greek and UK teams problems (Lee-Kelley and Sankey, 2008). It is suggested that this could be the result of a low-trust culture, where colleagues feel they have to preserve email communication if a dispute takes place, for example. The excessive number of emails also meant that they could not be fully tracked or even read sometimes. The company used video-conference as a replacement for face-to-face interaction, however staff felt that many of these conference calls were very long and unnecessary (over 8 hours in some cases). As suggested in the literature, the business language used can be a challenge for non native speakers, however this was not the case for the team in Singapore, due to their superior command of the English language. In the case of BankCo Inc. this was actually more problematic amongst Germany, Spain and Italy when they had to communicate in English. Also, despite the business language being English, BankCo Inc. as flexible enough to allow certain groups to discuss problems in their native language when interacting with each other, for example, in Singapore, this allowed easier explanation of concepts. Technology With regards to Technology, there were a number of tools available for communication. However, there were cases reported where users were not familiar with them. For example, with th e tool â€Å"Test Director†, created to identify and raise problems, many users were duplicating work, by using emails as a secondary way of raising these problems. The article by Lee-Kelley and Sankey (2008) emphasises that the challenges of technology could be resolved if managers addressed the training needs of the users involved, in a way to improve communication. Synergy among team members In the early stages of the project, it was reported that there was lack of clarity in responsibilities and roles, and therefore people were passing on the problems to others. Also, the authors pointed out that there was no obvious global project leader, which could have been seen by the users as lack of leadership and direction. The scholars highlight that cultural and temporal issues affected the building of trust. For example the UK and Greek teams showed some frustration by the East tendency to avoid answering a question fully. They also felt they could not rely on their Eastern counterparts to complete tasks, even if they were committed to do so. Senior management acknowledged the problem, and highlighted the need for more interaction and understanding. As a consequence, some positive steps were taken, for example by implementing more face-to-face meetings. Culture The authors pointed out that there was a difference in the work ethics between the West and the East, for example despite those in the West work very hard, the colleagues in the East worked longer and socially unaccepted hours. Another issue pointed out was the way that members in the team in Singapore would accept all change requests from senior management, even though they did not have the time to complete those tasks. They justified it as being part of their culture to not reject or disappoint any requests from someone higher in the hierarchy. However, the Western counterparts perceived this as inefficient and pointed out that â€Å"these guys are lying continuously† (Lee-Kelley and Sankey, 2008, p. 60). Time zone differences With regards to this issue there were two different sides: some of the virtual team groups were working long hours, for example in Singapore to allow flexibility and problems to be picked up, even out of routine hours. On the other hand, the West assumed that they could then communicate with the East whenever they wanted to, and some problems arose when staff in Singapore was dealing with queries way past midnight. Conclusion By examining the critical issues regarding global virtual teams, this project offers significant insight to broaden our academic understanding of culturally and geographically distant virtual teams. An emergent perception that arises from this discussion is that the virtual project working has a set of unique characteristics that in turn create new challenges for international management. The findings in the case of BankCo Inc. also suggest that a variety of issues affect cross-cultural virtual teams, but on closer inspection, only cultural differences impacting on conflict and team elations, and time zones differences affecting coordination and communication, may be directly related with the temporal and geographical distance features of virtual teams. Lee-Kelley and Sankey (2008) highlight that the remaining factors, such as trust, technology, and communication are not unique to virtual teams, and can also be found in more conventional organisations. That being said, the ir presence should not be undermined, as it adds to the challenge found in the virtual project setting. For instance, communication as a traditional team issue can be magnified by cultural diversity and distance. Based on this discussion, I would consider the following as a set of best practices for the effective management of cross-cultural virtual teams: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION ? Leaders must ensure that a functional language is adopted in the virtual project setting, one that fits the level of diversity of the virtual team. ? The organisation must provide guidelines for communication and adequate training with the relevant communication tools. ? Equal access to information must be assured for all members of one team. ? Recognise that technology is an enabler SYNERGY ? Encourage face-to-face encounters where possible, particularly at the beginning of the team existence. ? Good definition of roles. Leaders must clarify what is expected and what are the responsibilities of all team members and also ensure that members in one team are aware of each other’s responsibilities. ? Set clear, measurable and achievable goals ? Provide constructive feedback VIRTUALLY MINIMIZE TIME-ZONE DIFFERENCES ? Encourage the planning of schedules and tasks. ? Consider the possibility of 24h services. Ensure that all team members are aware of time-zone differences amongst fellow colleagues CULTURAL AWARENESS ? Understand the different backgrounds and distinct cultures of all team members. ? Leaders must be able to predict potential areas of conflict due to cultural differences and prevent them from happening. ? Foster one organisational culture that promotes listening skills, respect and patience among culturally diverse workers. ? Value diversity The fut ure This project identified key areas for cross-cultural management and it represents a step towards more research regarding global virtual teams. Also it provides a more profound understanding of the managerial implications in the virtual project setting. One can argue that the use of virtual teams contribute to a borderless world, however a new set of borders appears to emerge from this particular environment. One that is well distinct from other, more conventional multinational corporations. This project demonstrated that the durability and future of the virtual project setting relies heavily on both the organisational capabilities and the individuals, and moreover that organisations cannot depend solely on their members to attain the organisational goals. Future research is encouraged to address the unique challenges of such organisational design, and contrast the effective leadership styles when face-to-face contact is hardly present. References ? Alexander, S. (2000) Virtual Teams Going Global, InfoWorld, 22(46): 55-56. ? Ardichvili, A. , Maurer, M. , Li, W. , Wentling, T. & Stuedemann, R. (2006) ‘Cultural influences on knowledge sharing through online communities of practice’, Journal of Knowledge Management, 10 (1), pp. 94–107 ? Cranford M. (1996) ‘The social trajectory of virtual reality: substantive ethics in a world without constraints’. Technol Soc; 18(1):79–92. ? Jarvenpaa, S, & Leidner, D (1999), ‘Communication and Trust in Global Virtual Teams', Organization Science, 10, 6, pp. 791-815, ? Kuruppuarachchi, PR (2009), ‘Virtual team concepts in projects: A case study', Project Management Journal, 40, 2, pp. 19-33 ? Lee, M. R. (2009) ‘E-ethical leadership for virtual project teams’, International Journal of Project Management, 27 (5), pp. 456-463 ? Lee-Kelley, L, & Sankey, T (2008), ‘Global virtual teams for value creation and project success: A case study', International Journal Of Project Management, 26, 1, pp. 1-62 ? Mead, R. & Andrews, T. G. (2009) International management. 4th ed. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. ? Peters, L. M. , & Manz, C. C. (2007). ‘Identifying antecedents of virtual team collaboration’. Team Performance Management, 13(3/4), 117–129. ? Rorive, B. et Xhauflair, V. ,  (2004),  Ã¢â‚¬Å"What binds together virtual teams? Some an swers from three case studies†, in Reddy, S. (Ed. ), Virtual teams: concepts and applications, India, ICFAI University Press, pp. 132-140. ? Symons, J. & Stenzel, C. 2007) ‘Virtually borderless: an examination of culture in virtual teaming’, Journal of General Management, 32 (3), pp. 1-17 ? Hall, E. T. (1981), Beyond Culture, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday. ? Lipnack, J. and Stamps, J. (1999), `Virtual Teams', Executive Excellence, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 14-15. ? Grosse, C (2002), ‘Managing Communication within Virtual Intercultural Teams', Business Communication Quarterly, 65, 4, pp. 22-38 ? Mayer, R. C, Davis J. H. , Schoorman F. D. (1995). An integrative model of organization trust. Acad. Management Rev. 20 (3), pp. 709- 734 ? Hofstede G. 1980), Culture's Consequence: International Diâ‚ ¬erences in Work-related Values, Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. ? Gudykunst, W. B. 1997. Cultural variability in communication. Comm. Res. 24 (4) 327-348. ——à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ OPENING CASE: BANKCO INC. BankCo Inc. is a large consumer bank that is truly global, with branches in more than 100 countries (Lee-Kelley and Sankey, 2008). By being present in distinct geographic areas (Africa, Europe and Middle East), this is a great example of a virtual organisation that faced unique challenges and more important, it includes all of the critical issues identified above. Team relations and communication were affected by both time zone and more important, cultural differences. Also, I will use this case study as a reference for establishing a set of best practices for â€Å"management in the virtual project setting† for two reasons: 1. It incorporates cross-cultural management of geographically and culturally distant units. 2. The company achieved an outstanding level of success in terms of budget, time and value delivery.