Ronald Reagans Policy Towards The Soviet Union Research Paper

Ronald Reagans Policy Towards The Soviet Union - Research Paper Example Regarding the United States’ confrontation against the communist expansion, the Reagan Government’s role was of more of strategic than of ‘muscular’, an adjective that easily could characterize a major part of the US policy towards the USSR during the earlier US presidencies. Indeed military enforcement served as a part of Reagan’s Doctrine, but not the whole of it. Either being compelled by the contemporary socio-economic condition of the country or learning the best part of the lesson from the history of the United States’ military involvement in the Vietnam War and Korean War Reagan chose an effective strategic course of being diplomatic and tactical, meanwhile keeping the United States’ superior military image intact. Controversy about Reagan’s Leftist Trend Indeed the ‘simplistic’, ‘sectarian’, ‘dangerous’, and even ‘primitive’, as Anthony Lewis a columnist of The New York Times once called, Reagan also earned the title â€Å"the communist in disguise† because of his strategic approach to Communism (Schweizer, 1994, p. 47). D’Souza (2003) notes, â€Å"Reagan had a much more sophisticated understanding of communism than either the hawks or the doves†. ... Reagan was the President of the Screen Actors’ Guild and was commonly known as â€Å"Red Ronnie.† (p. 3). Necessarily his comprehensible knowledge of the nature of communism and the lessons learned from the United States’ involvement in the Cold War during his predecessors shaped the main line of policy towards the communist Soviet Union. That is, the main line of his policy towards the USSR was to confront, to contain, to roll back Soviet blocks and finally to let the â€Å"evil empire† under its own weight while saving and restoring the country’s military superiority intact. Necessarily such stance was reflected in Reagan’s policy towards the Soviet Union. Being resolute to reinstate the United States’ pride and superiority in the world, he decided that America should be more active and assertive in confronting Communism and in providing active support to the friendly governments. Reagan’s rhetoric and his government’s military expenditure policies were directed to support this goal. Yet ultimately his foreign policy towards the USSR –though seemed to be more belligerent than that of the two earlier presidents- was â€Å"considerably more cautious than his sometimes bellicose statements suggested† (Profiles of US Presidents, n.d.). Reagan’s Dual Approaches to Communism and Reagan Doctrine Reagan’s policy towards the Soviet Union can significantly be marked as a dual approach in the sense that on one hand Reagan’s administration chose to provide both overt and covert support to anti-communist communities and guerrilla movements in order to â€Å"roll back† â€Å"Soviet-backed communist governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America†.

Esperanza of The House on Mango Street Essay Example for Free

Esperanza of The House on Mango Street Essay The House on Mango Street is a collection of musings of a young female named Esperanza. The main character and the direction of the stories is revealed in the first story. It is in The House on Mango Street that Sandra Cisnero sets Esperanza up as a young girl dreaming of a brighter future and yet floored on the realities of her situation. The first story introduces Esperanza as someone who plans on escaping the place where she is growing up. She is old enough to understand that the promises of her parents about the temporariness of their house are not going to be fulfilled any time soon. She is, however, young enough to believe that physically leaving Mango Street will mean a complete escape from the things that Mango Street and their house represent. The youthfulness of Esperanza is shown in Hairs where she describes her family and herself through a description of the type of hair each had. She tells about still being comforted by her mother’s presence beside her in their bed. It is also in this story that one understands Esperanza’s personality. She is free-spirited and hard to tame, like her hair. But she is clearly in the process of developing into a woman as she expresses her emotions for her mother’s hair – the hair of a truly ladylike woman. Esperanza is shown here to be in the transitional period of developing from a child into a complete lady. She most probably would be in her teenage years. The emotional and personal development of Esperanza is also seen in My Name. When she speaks of not wanting to be like her grandmother – a woman beside the window, trapped – she shows that she is already capable of deciding for herself the future she wants to have. She also shows her knowledge about the outside world when she speaks of the Chinese culture and its possible similarities with the Mexican culture. She also shows a deeper understanding of society when she explains how Chinese culture and Mexican culture do not want their women strong which is why they do not give them strong names. Her reference to women being suppressed and kept from being strong also shows that she is aware of this bias. She is clearly developing emotionally because she can formulate for herself judgments about the things that occur in the society she lives in. In this part of the stories, My Name, Esperanza demonstrates development from being the young girl who dreams of escaping her house because she wants more space to the teen who wants change because she no longer agrees with the things around her. She wants to change her name insisting that it does not refer to the â€Å"real her†. She wants a life that is different from her grandmother’s. The aspirations of Esperanza in this part have developed. From a house with more bedrooms and bathrooms, Esperanza now aspires for more abstract concepts – independence, choice, freedom. In the final parts of the stories, Esperanza seems to have finally developed into a wiser and more practical woman. She realizes that escaping Mango Street is not something she can do physically for the moment. She decides to write instead. This allows her release from the frustrations she feels for the place she lives in. Esperanza understands now that Mango Street is a part of her life and will continue to be so even after she leaves it. She seems to have made peace with herself and instead of continually trying to push for a way out, she now focuses on ways to improve herself. This is, according to her, the way to finally be able to leave Mango Street. Her wisdom is seen when she states that only in leaving Mango Street, improving herself somewhere else, and coming back to Mango Street can she truly be able to help those who do not have the ability to leave. Her goals are now realigned to include those in her community. Esperanza completes her journey from childhood to young adulthood in the pages of The House on Mango Street. She forms a clearer view of who she really is through her experiences in her house and grows emotionally as well. The maturity of Esperanza is seen not only in her thoughts but in the observations she has made from her neighborhood. She has learned from the lives of those around her and has grown from the lessons she gathered.

The Use of Symbols in Langston Hughes The Negro Speaks of Rivers Essay

The Use of Symbols in Langston Hughes' "The Negro Speaks of Rivers" The poem ?The Negro Speaks of Rivers? by Langston Hughes contains many symbolic meanings about the identity of African Americans. Throughout the poem Hughes uses metaphorical statements to suggest to the reader what the soul of the African American has been through. The symbols of the old rivers from which the African American ideal has risen can be interpreted in many different ways. They represent the birth and growth of the African American culture, and some of the most significant moments of their past. The words written in this poem represent the pride and knowledge of a group of outstanding people. Throughout the poem Hughes uses the word ?I? (line 4). This word does not represent one man but instead embodies the culture of African Americans. When Hughes says ?I?ve known rivers? (1) he actually means that the African Peoples have seen those times that are represented by the rivers and flourished because of them. In this poem the African Americans accomplishments and history are shown by the rive...

Calaveras Vineyards Essay

The purpose of this analysis is to determine if Goldengate Capital should participate in a $4.5 million management acquisition of Calaveras Vineyards. Located in Alameda Valley, California, Calaveras Vineyards sits on 220 acres, consisting of 175 acres of vineyards, and 45 acres of equipment sheds, a winery building, and a small farmhouse with guestrooms, offices, and sales room. Strategic Analysis SWOT Analysis Financial Analysis Current management of Calaveras, Stout PLC, prepared pro forma financial statements for fiscal years ending 1990, 1991, 1992, and 1993. This information is being used to examine historical data and look for relevant patterns in order to further valuate Calaveras Vineyards. Sales increased from $2.4 million in 1990 to $2.8 million in 1991. In 1992 Calaveras started to produce premium wines with increasing average industry prices. Although sales decreased from 1992 to 1993, cash flow improved immensely. Increasing the average price, and introducing premium wines, allowed Calaveras to gain a higher profit margin. Based on the pro forma historical financial statements, a comparative analysis has been completed to identify Calaveras’ position among other manufacturers of wine and brandy. Calaveras, when compared to other manufacturers industry-wide, may have not have the capability to pay its obligations. The current ratio of 0.4 is less than 1.0, indicating that Calaveras does not have enough current assets to cover their liabilities, to include equity. Although the current ratio is low, this does not mean there is a critical problem. Management should be aware and address quickly to determine what action to take. The assets to sales ratio indicates that Calaveras somewhat efficient in managing its assets in the relation the revenue generated. The higher the number the less investment is needed in order to generate revenue. Calaveras falls somewhere in between the upper and median quartile. They  will need to invest in order to generate more revenue. Calaveras’ is producing a 10% return on sales, above the upper quartile of industry norms. This means the vineyard is growing more efficient and providing growing profits. The return on assets ratio falls between the upper quartile and median quartile of the industry norm, and illustrates how well management is employing the company’s assets. With rate of 4.2% Calaveras is doing better than some of their competitors utilizing assets, but may need to invest to yield a higher rate, which will attract potential partners and lenders. Projections Forecast assumptions were used to project cash flow in the next 5 years. All assumptions are have been analyzed for reasonableness and work to generate a forecasted Income statement and balance sheet. A growth rate of 2% may not be sustainable, but it is conservative and will be used in discounting cash flows. Depending on how Calaveras will utilize free cash flows, capital expenditures may increase, resulting in a decrease in cash flows. However, these expenditures should yield a higher return on sales, and increase cash flows. Valuation Based on the forecasted income statement and balance sheet a discounted cash flow is calculated, using the weighted average cost of capital to discount cash flows.

Bipolar Disorder

Some people are more prone to either mania or depression, while others alternate equally between the two types of episodes. Some have frequent mood disruptions, while others experience only a few over a lifetime. There are four types of mood occurrences in bipolar disorder: mania, hypomania, depression, and mixed episodes. Each type of bipolar disorder mood episode has a unique set of symptoms. Mania Symptoms In the manic phase of bipolar disorder, feelings of heightened energy, creativity, and euphoria are common. People experiencing a manic episode often talk a recklessly and profligately, scarcely sleep, and are hyperactive.They may also feel like they're omnipotent, impregnable, or destined for prominence. Although mania inaugurates with delightful sensations, it has a tendency to spiral out of control. People often Denave uncontrollaDly aurlng a manic eplsoae: gamDllng away savlngs, engaging In inappropriate sexual activity, or making irrational business investments, for example . They may also become angry, irritable, and aggressive†picking fights, lashing out when others don't go along with their plans, and blaming anyone who criticizes their behavior.Some even become delusional or start hearing voices. Depression Symptoms In the past, bipolar depression was amalgamated in with regular depression. But a mounting reservoir of research suggests that there are significant differences between the two, particularly when it comes to recommended treatments. Most people with bipolar depression are not helped by antidepressants. In fact, there is a risk that antidepressants can make bipolar disorder worse†triggering mania or hypomania, causing rapid cycling between mood states, or interfering with other mood stabilizing drugs.Despite many similarities, certain symptoms are more common in bipolar depression than in regular depression. For example, bipolar epression is more likely to involve irritability, guilt, unpredictable mood swings, and feelings of restlessness. People with bipolar depression also tend to move and speak slowly, sleep a lot, and gain weight. In addition, they are more likely to develop psychotic depression†a condition in which theyVe lost contact with reality†and to experience major disability in work and social functioning.TYPES There are several types of bipolar disorder; all involve episodes of depression and mania to a degree. They include bipolar l, bipolar II, cyclothymic disorder, mixed bipolar, and rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Bipolar I Raging bipolar (l) is characterized by at least one full-blown manic episode lasting at least one week or any duration if hospitalization is required. This may include inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, being more loquacious than usual, flight of ideas, distractibility, an increase in goal-oriented activity, and excessive involvement in hazardous activities.The symptoms are severe enough to disrupt the patient's ability to work and socialize, and may require hospitalization to prevent harm to themselves or others. The patient may lose touch with reality to the point of being psychotic. The other option for raging bipolar is at least one â€Å"mixed† episode on the part of the patient. The DSM-IV is uncharacteristically vague as to what constitutes mixed, an accurate reflection of the confusion within the psychiatric profession. More tellingly, a mixed episode is almost impossible to explain to the public. One is literally â€Å"up† and â€Å"down† at the same time.Bipolar II Swinging bipolar (II) presumes at least one major depressive episode, plus at least one hypomanic episode over at least four days. The same characteristics as mania are evident, with the disturbance of mood observable by others; but, the episode is ot enough to disrupt normal functioning or necessitate hospitalization and there are no psychotic features. Those in a state of hypomania are typically the life of the party, the salesperson of the month and more often than not the best-selling author or Fortune 500 mover and shaker, which is why so many refuse to seek treatment.But the same condition can also turn on its victim, resulting in bad decision-making, social embarrassments, wrecked relationships and projects left unfinished. Rapid Cycling DSM-IV defines rapid cycling as the occurrence of at least 4 major depressive, manic, ypomanlc, or mlxea eplsoaes aurlng tne prevlous year In a patient wltn a Olagnosls of BP I or BP II. These episodes must be demarcated either by a partial or full remission of at least 2 months' duration or by a switch to an episode of opposite polarity.Duration criteria for episodes are not waived, which means that each major depressive episode must last at least 2 weeks, each manic or mixed episode must last at least 1 week, and each hypomanic episode must last at least 4 days. Mixed Bipolar A mixed episode is not a disorder itself, but rather is a description of a component of a specific type of bipolar disorder. A mixed episode is defined by meeting the diagnostic criteria for both a manic episode as well as a major depressive episode nearly every day for at least a full week.Like most mental disorders, a mixed episode must be severe enough to cause distress or impairment in social, occupational, education or other important functioning and is not better accounted for by the physiological effects of substance use, or abuse, or a general medical condition. Cyclothymia Cyclothymia is a chronic bipolar disorder consisting of short periods of mild depression and short periods of hypomania, lasting a few days to a few weeks, eparated by short periods of normal mood.Individuals with cyclothymia are never liberated of symptoms of either depression or hypomania for more than two months at a time. In 1980 the classification of cyclothymia was changed in the DSM-IV from Personality Disorder to Mood Disorder. Though the above description portrays cycl othymia as a mild disorder, it is so only relative to the severity of Bipolar I and Bipolar II disorders. Cyclothymia can completely disrupt the life of an individual and create personal chaos. In their continual oscillation of mood, they never know from ne day to the next what to expect.TREATMENTS Bipolar disorder is being better understood each day. There is also ongoing research into its treatment. But successfully treating bipolar disorder can involve several medication trials, and it can take years to achieve remission. Even if remission is attained, recurrence is the rule † not the exception. It's not uncommon for all first- line treatments to be exhausted. Common Treatments Lithium and the anticonvulsants lamotrigine and valproate are treatments for bipolar depression. They are mood stabilizers. For severely ill patients, lithium and an ntidepressant are sometimes used.A mood-stabilizing medication works on improving social interactions, mood, and behavior and is recomm ended for both treatment and prevention of bipolar mood states that swing from the lows of depression to the highs of hypomania or mania. According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA), lithium, lamotrigine, valproate, carbamazepine, and most atypical antipsychotic medications are approved by the FDA for treating one, or more, phases of bipolar disorder. Treatment Resistance There is no consensus among clinicians and researchers on one definition of reatment resistance.Generally, patients in an acute state, manic, depressed, or mixed, whose symptoms do not improve after at least two evidence-based medication trlals are conslaerea treatment-reslstant In researcn stu01es. In tne malntenance phase, patients are considered treatment-resistant if they continue cycling despite several adequate medication trials. In some studies additional criteria must be met in order to truly be considered treatment-resistant. These include functional measures of remission. Dr. Prakash Masand, p sychiatrist and founder of Global Bipolar Disorder Bipolar Disorder Heather McLean HCA/240 Maryam Pirnazar 4/14/2013 Introduction Bipolar disorder is a brain disorder it can cause shifts in moods, activity level, energy, and also the ability to due day-to-day tasks. It is also commonly known as manic- depressive illness. This disorder is one of the oldest illnesses that is known. It is one of the first noticed that goes as far back and the second century. The first person that recognized the some of the symptoms is Aretaeus of Cappadocia. What he found went unnoticed until Richard Burton a scientist wrote a book, which the main focus was depression.This is still used in today’s time. There are many different myths and misconceptions about bipolar disorder. Some myths about bipolar disorder consists of things that people believe like, bipolar disorder can not get better or people with the disorder can not lead a normal life, people with this disorder swing back and forth between depression and mania. Some even believe that dipo lar disorder only affects moods, and some believe that medication is the only way people with this disorder can control it. Only with getting the facts will people be able to understand the truth about bipolar disorder.The causes of bipolar are unknown. There are several factors that do seem to play a role in triggering the bipolar episodes. These causes consist of biological differences, neurotransmitters, hormones, inherited trait, and environment. They’re are some that believes that, bipolar disorder is inherited and a family trait. Symptoms Symptoms for bipolar disorder are severe and people do not notice them off the bat. When a patient had bipolar disorder people experience different states. When patients have bipolar disorder, they experience an intense emotional state, which can be called ‘mood episodes’.A person that experience overly joy or overly excited times is called manic episodes. When bipolar disorder patients experience extreme hopelessness or s ad states, is considered to be a depressive episodes. There are even times when episodes are mixed, which are considered as mixed states. There are many different things that go with the symptoms of bipolar disorder. Patients can have extreme changes in their activity, energy, sleep patterns, and their changes in their total behavior. It is also possible that people with this disorder can have episodes for a long period of time.Symptoms of mania include mood changes, the patient can feel high or overly happy or a long period of time, and extreme irritable moods. Their behavioral changes consists of talking fast, going from one idea to a different one, easily distracted, an increase in goal-directed activities, being restless, have little sleep, behave impulsively and taking part in high risk behavior. They can also have unrealistic beliefs in ones abilities. Symptoms of depression include a long period of feelings, worry or even empty, a lack of interest and activities, which includ es sex.The behavior changes are felling tired, problems with concentration, and memory and even making decisions. Other symptoms are restlessness, a change in eating habits, and thinking about death and suicide. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are also involved with the signs and symptoms of bipolar disorders. Before knowing how it is involved in bipolar disorder, knowing what neurotransmitters are important. A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that is released at the very end of the nerve fiber. It transmits signals from the neuron to a target cell across a synapse.With bipolar disorders, neurotransmitters are involved in the aetiology of mood disorder. In earlier theories, suggestions where made that an excess of neurotransmitters occurred during a manic episode, which is not really what happens. It is the effectiveness of the cell functions under the modification and the control of neurotransmitters that underlines the patho-aetiology of mood disorders. Diagnoses Some people wonder how bipolar disorder is diagnosed. The person can do is talk to a doctor that can diagnose and give a physical examination, and mental lab test.It cant be found through a blood test or even a brain scan, although these tests can help make sure that there are not any other contributing factors. The doctor can then conduct a evaluation of mental health. He can also give a patient a referral to a mental health professional, like a psychiatrist, which is more experienced with diagnosing bipolar disorders. When conducting a diagnostic evaluation they discuss all family history and get the patients history of any symptoms. They will also talk about the patients close relatives and spouse.Getting more information about the patient and what they are going through in life will also help determine whether or not they are bipolar. When a person has bipolar disorder, they are more likely to look for help in their most vulnerable state, which is when they are depressed. Making sure that the patient is not mistakenly diagnosed it is important for the doctor to make sure that the patients medical history is done with care. After going thought the process of being diagnosed, the doctor will then find the appropriate treatment for the patient.Treatment Bipolar disorder has no known cure. The best thing for patients is to have proper treatments, to have a better control over their mood swings and other symptoms they may have. Patients with bipolar disorder are in need for a long-term treatment because the disorder is a lifetime disorder. The most affective treatment plan involves medication and psychotherapy, which help the patient from relapsing and helps them reduce the severity of their symptoms. Normally someone that is a doctor of medicine prescribes by a psychiatrist or medications.There are also others that can prescribe medications like psychiatric nurse practitioners, advanced psychiatric nurse specialists and clinical psychologists, but it all depends on the state that you are in, and it is best to check with your states licensing agency to make sure. Some of the types of medications that are used to treat bipolar disorders are, mood-stabilizing medications like Lithium and Valproic, Atypical ant-psychotic medicates like Olanzapine, and Aripiprazole, and antidepressant medications like Fluoxetine. Everyone may not respond to the medications in the same exact way.It may even take different tries with different medications to get the right one that works for the right patient. It may even help to keep a daily chard or the patients mood symptoms, sleep patterns, treatments, and their everyday life to make sure you can tell the doctor about how affective the medication is. With every medication, it is important that you know the side effects and patients should always talk to their doctor about and risks and benefits. Psychotherapy is a part of the treatment with bipolar disorders. It is really when the patient goes in to talk in thera py.It is a way to provide education, guidance, and more important support. Some treatments that can be used in psychotherapy are, cognitive behavioral therapy, family focused therapy, interpersonal and social rhythm therapy, and psycho-education. It is a way to let the patient talk out their feeling and what is going on in their lives, and a way for the doctor to talk to the patient about how they should deal with thing and educate them on the process. Environmental surrounds also could help a person with bipolar disorder, not have an episode or is may cause them to have one. EnvironmentalAn environmental surround of a person that is suffering from bipolar disorder is very important. It is important that the patient understands that doing certain thing or even being around certain people may cause them to have an episode. If the patient is around people and surrounding that does not stressful and not giving the patient a hard time will help them not get over work about things, and b eing around people and place that could upset the patient can cause them to have an episode. Any life event may trigger an episode; alcohol or drug abuse or even hormonal problems can cause an episode.Knowing what is causing the episodes is important, and the patient will be able to have a better control over their episodes. In the Past Things are so much different than when they were before the 20th century. Before the 20th century diagnostic was done a bit different than in today’s time and so was the treatments. Physical explanations gave way to many theories that believed that mental illness came in the mind. The causes were thought to be a demonic possession or even a moral weakness, and it could be cured by exorcism or a religious zeal. People were even outcast and many was even convicted of consorting with the devil and burned.With ancient treatments, Egyptians believed that depression was caused by a reversal of fortune or even a loss of status. They thought that it c ould have been cured by talking it out or for the person to look to a religious faith. Some people believe that mental illness was a gift from the heavens, and it should have been cherished. The Greeks believed that depression was an overabundance of mania to yellow bile and black bile, that lives in the body, and the only help for it was bleeding or for the person to purge the system to regain their balance.In today’s time doctors are used to determine what is wrong with the patient, and they are able to treat them with medication and therapy to help them deal with their disorders. Conclusion It is a good thing that in today’s time we have people to example patients and get appropriate diagnoses for them, and to also make sure they get the help that is needed. Understanding what is going on with a persons mind is important and making sure they know how to deal with a life long situation like bipolar disorder, is necessary. Experience from a Patient with Bipolar Disord er Living with bipolar disorder isn’t easy. You never know when you’re going to have a good or bad day. You just have to be ready for whichever one comes. The medication help a little, but you have to be mentally strong to deal with the things this serious disorder will put you through, that the way I felt was completely natural. I had weeks I was angry, sad, and someday I was happy. It was easy to set me off, I would get mad at simple things and hold on to that anger. School become harder, I didn’t want to be there, everything pushed my buttons.I would hold my anger for so long and it would build up, then someone says something and I would blow the top off the kettle. Finally my build up anger caused me to go to fail, after that I decided I needed some sort of help. I made an appointment with an anger management person and they asked me some very personal questions. They proceeded to a drug test after I told them I did not do drugs, and everything was clean. Th en she said she wanted to try me on a simple mood stabilizer. So for a month I took this medicine called Saphris. It tasted like sulfur, and kept me awake and made me very hyper.I couldn’t sleep and wasn’t really hungry or anything. So I told her on my next visit what I was experiencing. She then changed it to a higher dosage and it did the same things. So my nexts visit, which was a month later, she changed my medicines again, and this time it was a simple anti-depressant call Prozac. Since taking this medicine I have gotten better, I am less angry, sad and hyper. I finally fell semi-normal, its been two months and I am pretty much controlling my moods with the help of Prozac, but I still have my days, that normal just something I live with daily and I am beginning to cop pretty well with everyday life. (Dezarare Walden 4/13/2013). Dezarae is an 18 year old, white, female, which agree to write her experience of bipolar disorder for me. The best way to talk to people a bout it, is to speak to those who are experiences the disorder. Reference: Copyright  © caregiver. com, Inc. 1995 – 2013  ©Helpguide. org Duman et al, 1997; Duman, 2002 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES National Institutes of Health NIH Publication No. 09-3679 Revised 2008 Reprinted 2009 Bipolar Disorder Bipolar Disorder Heather McLean HCA/240 Maryam Pirnazar 4/14/2013 Introduction Bipolar disorder is a brain disorder it can cause shifts in moods, activity level, energy, and also the ability to due day-to-day tasks. It is also commonly known as manic- depressive illness. This disorder is one of the oldest illnesses that is known. It is one of the first noticed that goes as far back and the second century. The first person that recognized the some of the symptoms is Aretaeus of Cappadocia. What he found went unnoticed until Richard Burton a scientist wrote a book, which the main focus was depression.This is still used in today’s time. There are many different myths and misconceptions about bipolar disorder. Some myths about bipolar disorder consists of things that people believe like, bipolar disorder can not get better or people with the disorder can not lead a normal life, people with this disorder swing back and forth between depression and mania. Some even believe that dipo lar disorder only affects moods, and some believe that medication is the only way people with this disorder can control it. Only with getting the facts will people be able to understand the truth about bipolar disorder.The causes of bipolar are unknown. There are several factors that do seem to play a role in triggering the bipolar episodes. These causes consist of biological differences, neurotransmitters, hormones, inherited trait, and environment. They’re are some that believes that, bipolar disorder is inherited and a family trait. Symptoms Symptoms for bipolar disorder are severe and people do not notice them off the bat. When a patient had bipolar disorder people experience different states. When patients have bipolar disorder, they experience an intense emotional state, which can be called ‘mood episodes’.A person that experience overly joy or overly excited times is called manic episodes. When bipolar disorder patients experience extreme hopelessness or s ad states, is considered to be a depressive episodes. There are even times when episodes are mixed, which are considered as mixed states. There are many different things that go with the symptoms of bipolar disorder. Patients can have extreme changes in their activity, energy, sleep patterns, and their changes in their total behavior. It is also possible that people with this disorder can have episodes for a long period of time.Symptoms of mania include mood changes, the patient can feel high or overly happy or a long period of time, and extreme irritable moods. Their behavioral changes consists of talking fast, going from one idea to a different one, easily distracted, an increase in goal-directed activities, being restless, have little sleep, behave impulsively and taking part in high risk behavior. They can also have unrealistic beliefs in ones abilities. Symptoms of depression include a long period of feelings, worry or even empty, a lack of interest and activities, which includ es sex.The behavior changes are felling tired, problems with concentration, and memory and even making decisions. Other symptoms are restlessness, a change in eating habits, and thinking about death and suicide. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are also involved with the signs and symptoms of bipolar disorders. Before knowing how it is involved in bipolar disorder, knowing what neurotransmitters are important. A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that is released at the very end of the nerve fiber. It transmits signals from the neuron to a target cell across a synapse.With bipolar disorders, neurotransmitters are involved in the aetiology of mood disorder. In earlier theories, suggestions where made that an excess of neurotransmitters occurred during a manic episode, which is not really what happens. It is the effectiveness of the cell functions under the modification and the control of neurotransmitters that underlines the patho-aetiology of mood disorders. Diagnoses Some people wonder how bipolar disorder is diagnosed. The person can do is talk to a doctor that can diagnose and give a physical examination, and mental lab test.It cant be found through a blood test or even a brain scan, although these tests can help make sure that there are not any other contributing factors. The doctor can then conduct a evaluation of mental health. He can also give a patient a referral to a mental health professional, like a psychiatrist, which is more experienced with diagnosing bipolar disorders. When conducting a diagnostic evaluation they discuss all family history and get the patients history of any symptoms. They will also talk about the patients close relatives and spouse.Getting more information about the patient and what they are going through in life will also help determine whether or not they are bipolar. When a person has bipolar disorder, they are more likely to look for help in their most vulnerable state, which is when they are depressed. Making sure that the patient is not mistakenly diagnosed it is important for the doctor to make sure that the patients medical history is done with care. After going thought the process of being diagnosed, the doctor will then find the appropriate treatment for the patient.Treatment Bipolar disorder has no known cure. The best thing for patients is to have proper treatments, to have a better control over their mood swings and other symptoms they may have. Patients with bipolar disorder are in need for a long-term treatment because the disorder is a lifetime disorder. The most affective treatment plan involves medication and psychotherapy, which help the patient from relapsing and helps them reduce the severity of their symptoms. Normally someone that is a doctor of medicine prescribes by a psychiatrist or medications.There are also others that can prescribe medications like psychiatric nurse practitioners, advanced psychiatric nurse specialists and clinical psychologists, but it all depends on the state that you are in, and it is best to check with your states licensing agency to make sure. Some of the types of medications that are used to treat bipolar disorders are, mood-stabilizing medications like Lithium and Valproic, Atypical ant-psychotic medicates like Olanzapine, and Aripiprazole, and antidepressant medications like Fluoxetine. Everyone may not respond to the medications in the same exact way.It may even take different tries with different medications to get the right one that works for the right patient. It may even help to keep a daily chard or the patients mood symptoms, sleep patterns, treatments, and their everyday life to make sure you can tell the doctor about how affective the medication is. With every medication, it is important that you know the side effects and patients should always talk to their doctor about and risks and benefits. Psychotherapy is a part of the treatment with bipolar disorders. It is really when the patient goes in to talk in thera py.It is a way to provide education, guidance, and more important support. Some treatments that can be used in psychotherapy are, cognitive behavioral therapy, family focused therapy, interpersonal and social rhythm therapy, and psycho-education. It is a way to let the patient talk out their feeling and what is going on in their lives, and a way for the doctor to talk to the patient about how they should deal with thing and educate them on the process. Environmental surrounds also could help a person with bipolar disorder, not have an episode or is may cause them to have one. EnvironmentalAn environmental surround of a person that is suffering from bipolar disorder is very important. It is important that the patient understands that doing certain thing or even being around certain people may cause them to have an episode. If the patient is around people and surrounding that does not stressful and not giving the patient a hard time will help them not get over work about things, and b eing around people and place that could upset the patient can cause them to have an episode. Any life event may trigger an episode; alcohol or drug abuse or even hormonal problems can cause an episode.Knowing what is causing the episodes is important, and the patient will be able to have a better control over their episodes. In the Past Things are so much different than when they were before the 20th century. Before the 20th century diagnostic was done a bit different than in today’s time and so was the treatments. Physical explanations gave way to many theories that believed that mental illness came in the mind. The causes were thought to be a demonic possession or even a moral weakness, and it could be cured by exorcism or a religious zeal. People were even outcast and many was even convicted of consorting with the devil and burned.With ancient treatments, Egyptians believed that depression was caused by a reversal of fortune or even a loss of status. They thought that it c ould have been cured by talking it out or for the person to look to a religious faith. Some people believe that mental illness was a gift from the heavens, and it should have been cherished. The Greeks believed that depression was an overabundance of mania to yellow bile and black bile, that lives in the body, and the only help for it was bleeding or for the person to purge the system to regain their balance.In today’s time doctors are used to determine what is wrong with the patient, and they are able to treat them with medication and therapy to help them deal with their disorders. Conclusion It is a good thing that in today’s time we have people to example patients and get appropriate diagnoses for them, and to also make sure they get the help that is needed. Understanding what is going on with a persons mind is important and making sure they know how to deal with a life long situation like bipolar disorder, is necessary. Experience from a Patient with Bipolar Disord er Living with bipolar disorder isn’t easy. You never know when you’re going to have a good or bad day. You just have to be ready for whichever one comes. The medication help a little, but you have to be mentally strong to deal with the things this serious disorder will put you through, that the way I felt was completely natural. I had weeks I was angry, sad, and someday I was happy. It was easy to set me off, I would get mad at simple things and hold on to that anger. School become harder, I didn’t want to be there, everything pushed my buttons.I would hold my anger for so long and it would build up, then someone says something and I would blow the top off the kettle. Finally my build up anger caused me to go to fail, after that I decided I needed some sort of help. I made an appointment with an anger management person and they asked me some very personal questions. They proceeded to a drug test after I told them I did not do drugs, and everything was clean. Th en she said she wanted to try me on a simple mood stabilizer. So for a month I took this medicine called Saphris. It tasted like sulfur, and kept me awake and made me very hyper.I couldn’t sleep and wasn’t really hungry or anything. So I told her on my next visit what I was experiencing. She then changed it to a higher dosage and it did the same things. So my nexts visit, which was a month later, she changed my medicines again, and this time it was a simple anti-depressant call Prozac. Since taking this medicine I have gotten better, I am less angry, sad and hyper. I finally fell semi-normal, its been two months and I am pretty much controlling my moods with the help of Prozac, but I still have my days, that normal just something I live with daily and I am beginning to cop pretty well with everyday life. (Dezarare Walden 4/13/2013). Dezarae is an 18 year old, white, female, which agree to write her experience of bipolar disorder for me. The best way to talk to people a bout it, is to speak to those who are experiences the disorder. Reference: Copyright  © caregiver. com, Inc. 1995 – 2013  ©Helpguide. org Duman et al, 1997; Duman, 2002 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES National Institutes of Health NIH Publication No. 09-3679 Revised 2008 Reprinted 2009

The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus SL and HL

The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus SL and HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips IB Chemistry is tough. If you are reading this syllabus, I assume you are interested in potentially taking this course or you are currently enrolled in the course. In this article, I'll discuss every topic covered in IB Chemistry Standard Level and IB Chemistry Higher Level and the number of hours dedicated to each topic along with what the IB expects you to understand in each topic. IB Chemistry SL and HL Core Both IB Chemistry SL and HL cover the first 11 topics (a total of 95 hours), and HL additionally covers topics 12 to 21 (an additional 60 hours). For both levels, you'll also study one of the four options A-D (15 hours for SL, 25 hours for HL). Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #1: Stoichiometric Relationships- 13.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change 1.1 "Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds, which have different properties from their component elements." "Mixtures contain more than one element and/or compound that are not chemically bonded together and so retain their individual properties." "Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous." The mole concept 1.2 "The mole is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance." "Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to 12C and are expressed as relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula/molecular mass (Mr)." "Molar mass (M) has the units g mol-1." "The empirical formula and molecular formula of a compound give the simplest ratio and the actual number of atoms present in a molecule respectively." Reacting masses and volumes 1.3 "Reactants can be either limiting or excess." "The experimental yield can be different from the theoretical yield." "Avogadro’s law enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be determined from volumes of the gases." "The molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at specified temperature and pressure." "The molar concentration of a solution is determined by the amount of solute and the volume of solution." "A standard solution is one of known concentration." Topic #2: Atomic Structure- 6 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand The nuclear atom 2.1 "Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons)." "Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus." "The mass spectrometer is used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element from its isotopic composition." Electron configuration 2.2 "Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited electrons return to a lower energy level." "The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in discrete energy levels, which converge at higher energies." "The main energy level or shell is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum number of electrons, 2n2." "A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s, p, d and f sub-levels of successively higher energies." "Sub-levels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding an electron." "Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electronic configuration and chemical environment and can hold two electrons of opposite spin." Topic #3: Periodicity- 6 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Periodic table 3.1 "The periodic table is arranged into four blocks associated with the four sub- levels- s, p, d, and f." "The periodic table consists of groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows)." "The period number (n) is the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons." "The number of the principal energy level and the number of the valence electrons in an atom can be deduced from its position on the periodic table." "The periodic table shows the positions of metals, non-metals and metalloids." Periodic trends 3.2 "Vertical and horizontal trends in the periodic table exist for atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity." "Trends in metallic and non-metallic behaviour are due to the trends above." "Oxides change from basic through amphoteric to acidic across a period." Topic #4: Chemical Bonding and Structure- 13.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Ionic bonding and structure 4.1 "Positive ions (cations) form by metals losing valence electrons." "Negative ions (anions) form by non-metals gaining electrons." "The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by the electron configuration of the atom." "The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions." "Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are usually solids with lattice structures." Covalent bonding 4.2 "A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the positively charged nuclei." "Single, double and triple covalent bonds involve one, two and three shared pairs of electrons respectively." "Bond length decreases and bond strength increases as the number of shared electrons increases." "Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms." Covalent structures 4.3 "Lewis (electron dot) structures show all the valence electrons in a covalently bonded species." "The â€Å"octet rule† refers to the tendency of atoms to gain a valence shell with a total of 8 electrons." "Some atoms, like Be and B, might form stable compounds with incomplete octets of electrons." "Resonance structures occur when there is more than one possible position for a double bond in a molecule." "Shapes of species are determined by the repulsion of electron pairs according to VSEPR theory." "Carbon and silicon form giant covalent/network covalent structures." Intermolecular forces 4.4 "Intermolecular forces include London (dispersion) forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding." "The relative strengths of these interactions are London (dispersion) forces dipole-dipole forces hydrogen bonds." Metallic bonding 4.5 "A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalized electrons." "The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion." "Alloys usually contain more than one metal and have enhanced properties." Topic #5: Energetics/Thermochemistry- 9 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Measuring energy changes 5.1 "Heat is a form of energy." "Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles." "Total energy is conserved in chemical reactions." "Chemical reactions that involve transfer of heat between the system and the surroundings are described as endothermic or exothermic." "The enthalpy change (∆H) for chemical reactions is indicated in kJ mol-1." "∆H values are usually expressed under standard conditions, given by ∆H °, including standard states." Hess’s Law 5.2 "The enthalpy change for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps." Bond enthalpies 5.3 "Bond-forming releases energy and bond-breaking requires energy." "Average bond enthalpy is the energy needed to break one mol of a bond in a gaseous molecule averaged over similar compounds." Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #6: Chemical Kinetics- 7 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Collision theory and rates of reaction 6.1 "Species react as a result of collisions of sufficient energy and proper orientation." "The rate of reaction is expressed as the change in concentration of a particular reactant/product per unit time." "Concentration changes in a reaction can be followed indirectly by monitoring changes in mass, volume and colour." "Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy that colliding molecules need in order to have successful collisions leading to a reaction." "By decreasing Ea, a catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without itself being permanently chemically changed." Topic #7: Equilibrium- 4.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Equilibrium 7.1 "A state of equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal." "The equilibrium law describes how the equilibrium constant (Kc) can be determined for a particular chemical reaction." "The magnitude of the equilibrium constant indicates the extent of a reaction at equilibrium and is temperature dependent." "The reaction quotient (Q) measures the relative amount of products and reactants present during a reaction at a particular point in time. Q is the equilibrium expression with non-equilibrium concentrations. The position of the equilibrium changes with changes in concentration, pressure, and temperature." "A catalyst has no effect on the position of equilibrium or the equilibrium constant." Topic #8: Acids and Bases- 6.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Theories of acids and bases 8.1 "A Brà ¸nsted–Lowry acid is a proton/H+ donor and a Brà ¸nsted–Lowry base is a proton/H+ acceptor." "Amphiprotic species can act as both Brà ¸nsted–Lowry acids and bases." "A pair of species differing by a single proton is called a conjugate acid-base pair." Properties of acids and bases 8.2 "Most acids have observable characteristic chemical reactions with reactive metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, hydrogen carbonates and carbonates." "Salt and water are produced in exothermic neutralization reactions." The pH scale 8.3 "pH = − log[H+(aq)] and [H+] = 10−pH." "A change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in the hydrogen ion concentration [ð   »Ã°   »+]." "pH values distinguish between acidic, neutral and alkaline solutions." "The ionic product constant, ð   ¾Ã°   ¾Ã° â€˜ ¤Ã° â€˜ ¤ = [H+][OH−] = 10−14 at 298 K." Strong and weak acids and bases 8.4 "Strong and weak acids and bases differ in the extent of ionization." "Strong acids and bases of equal concentrations have higher conductivities than weak acids and bases." "A strong acid is a good proton donor and has a weak conjugate base." "A strong base is a good proton acceptor and has a weak conjugate acid." Acid deposition 8.5 "Rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved CO2 and has a pH of 5.6. Acid deposition has a pH below 5.6." "Acid deposition is formed when nitrogen or sulfur oxides dissolve in water to form HNO3, HNO2, H2SO4 and H2SO3." "Sources of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and the effects of acid deposition should be covered." Topic #9: Redox Processes- 8 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Oxidation and reduction 9.1 "Oxidation and reduction can be considered in terms of oxygen gain/hydrogen loss, electron transfer or change in oxidation number." "An oxidizing agent is reduced and a reducing agent is oxidized." "Variable oxidation numbers exist for transition metals and for most main-group non-metals." "The activity series ranks metals according to the ease with which they undergo oxidation." "The Winkler Method can be used to measure biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), used as a measure of the degree of pollution in a water sample." Electrochemical cells 9.2 Voltaic (Galvanic) cells "Voltaic cells convert energy from spontaneous, exothermic chemical processes to electrical energy." "Oxidation occurs at the anode (negative electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (positive electrode) in a voltaic cell." Electrolytic cells "Electrolytic cells convert electrical energy to chemical energy, by bringing about non-spontaneous processes." "Oxidation occurs at the anode (positive electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (negative electrode) in an electrolytic cell." Topic #10: Organic Chemistry- 11 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Fundamentals of organic chemistry 10.1 "A homologous series is a series of compounds of the same family, with the same general formula, which differ from each other by a common structural unit." "Structural formulas can be represented in full and condensed format." "Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms." "Functional groups are the reactive parts of molecules." "Saturated compounds contain single bonds only and unsaturated compounds contain double or triple bonds." "Benzene is an aromatic, unsaturated hydrocarbon." Functional group chemistry 10.2 Alkanes: "Alkanes have low reactivity and undergo free-radical substitution reactions." Alkenes: "Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and undergo addition reactions. Bromine water can be used to distinguish between alkenes and alkanes." Alcohols: "Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with acids (also called esterification or condensation) and some undergo oxidation reactions." Halogenoalkanes: "Halogenoalkanes are more reactive than alkanes. They can undergo (nucleophilic) substitution reactions. A nucleophile is an electron-rich species containing a lone pair that it donates to an electron-deficient carbon." Polymers: "Addition polymers consist of a wide range of monomers and form the basis of the plastics industry." Benzene: "Benzene does not readily undergo addition reactions but does undergo electrophilic substitution reactions." Topic #11: Measurement and Data Processing- 10 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results 11.1 "Qualitative data includes all non-numerical information obtained from observations not from measurement." "Quantitative data are obtained from measurements, and are always associated with random errors/uncertainties, determined by the apparatus, and by human limitations such as reaction times." "Propagation of random errors in data processing shows the impact of the uncertainties on the final result." "Experimental design and procedure usually lead to systematic errors in measurement, which cause a deviation in a particular direction." "Repeat trials and measurements will reduce random errors but not systematic errors." Graphical techniques 11.2 "Graphical techniques are an effective means of communicating the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, and can lead to determination of physical quantities." "Sketched graphs have labeled but unscaled axes, and are used to show qualitative trends, such as variables that are proportional or inversely proportional." "Drawn graphs have labeled and scaled axes, and are used in quantitative measurements." Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds 11.3 "The degree of unsaturation or index of hydrogen deficiency (IHD) can be used to determine from a molecular formula the number of rings or multiple bonds in a molecule." "Mass spectrometry (MS), proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) and infrared spectroscopy (IR) are techniques that can be used to help identify compounds and to determine their structure." Additional Higher Level Topics These topics (a total of 60 hours) are only for Higher Level students. Topic #12: Atomic Structure- 2 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrons in atoms (HL ONLY) 12.1 "In an emission spectrum, the limit of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to the first ionization energy." "Trends in first ionization energy across periods account for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms." "Successive ionization energy data for an element give information that shows relations to electron configurations." Topic #13: The Periodic Table: Transition Metals- 4 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand First-row d-block elements (HL ONLY) 13.1 "Transition elements have variable oxidation states, form complex ions with ligands, have coloured compounds, and display catalytic and magnetic properties." "Zn is not considered to be a transition element as it does not form ions with incomplete d-orbitals." "Transition elements show an oxidation state of +2 when the s-electrons are removed." Coloured complexes (HL ONLY) 13.2 "The d sub-level splits into two sets of orbitals of different energy in a complex ion." "Complexes of d-block elements are coloured, as light is absorbed when an electron is excited between the d-orbitals." "The colour absorbed is complementary to the colour observed." Topic #14: Chemical Bonding and Structure- 7 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Further aspects of covalent bonding and structure (HL ONLY) 14.1 "Covalent bonds result from the overlap of atomic orbitals. A sigma bond (ÏÆ') is formed by the direct head-on/end-to-end overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. A pi bond (Ï€) is formed by the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms." "Formal charge (FC) can be used to decide which Lewis (electron dot) structure is preferred from several. The FC is the charge an atom would have if all atoms in the molecule had the same electronegativity. FC = (Number of valence electrons)- ½(Number of bonding electrons)-(Number of non-bonding electrons). The Lewis (electron dot) structure with the atoms having FC values closest to zero is preferred." "Exceptions to the octet rule include some species having incomplete octets and expanded octets." "Delocalization involves electrons that are shared by/between all atoms in a molecule or ion as opposed to being localized between a pair of atoms." "Resonance involves using two or more Lewis (electron dot) structures to represent a particular molecule or ion. A resonance structure is one of two or more alternative Lewis (electron dot) structures for a molecule or ion that cannot be described fully with one Lewis (electron dot) structure alone." Hybridization (HL ONLY) 14.2 "A hybrid orbital results from the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals on the same atom." Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #15: Energetics/Thermochemistry- 7 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Energy cycles (HL ONLY) 15.1 "Representative equations (eg M+(g) → M+(aq)) can be used for enthalpy/energy of hydration, ionization, atomization, electron affinity, lattice, covalent bond and solution." "Enthalpy of solution, hydration enthalpy and lattice enthalpy are related in an energy cycle." Entropy and spontaneity (HL ONLY) 15.2 "Entropy (S) refers to the distribution of available energy among the particles. The more ways the energy can be distributed the higher the entropy." "Gibbs free energy (G) relates the energy that can be obtained from a chemical reaction to the change in enthalpy (ΔH), change in entropy (ΔS), and absolute temperature (T)." "Entropy of gasliquidsolid under same conditions." Topic #16: Chemical Kinetics- 6 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Rate expression and reaction mechanism (HL ONLY) 16.1 "Reactions may occur by more than one step and the slowest step determines the rate of reaction (rate determining step/RDS)." "The molecularity of an elementary step is the number of reactant particles taking part in that step." "The order of a reaction can be either integer or fractional in nature. The order of a reaction can describe, with respect to a reactant, the number of particles taking part in the rate-determining step." "Rate equations can only be determined experimentally." "The value of the rate constant (k) is affected by temperature and its units are determined from the overall order of the reaction." "Catalysts alter a reaction mechanism, introducing a step with lower activation energy." Activation energy (HL ONLY) 16.2 "The Arrhenius equation uses the temperature dependence of the rate constant to determine the activation energy." "A graph of 1/T against ln k is a linear plot with gradient – Ea / R and intercept, lnA." "The frequency factor (or pre-exponential factor) (A) takes into account the frequency of collisions with proper orientations." Topic #17: Equilibrium- 4 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand The equilibrium law (HL ONLY) 17.1 "Le Chà ¢telier’s principle for changes in concentration can be explained by the equilibrium law." "The position of equilibrium corresponds to a maximum value of entropy and a minimum in the value of the Gibbs free energy." "The Gibbs free energy change of a reaction and the equilibrium constant can both be used to measure the position of an equilibrium reaction and are related by the equation, ∆G ° = −RT ln(ð   ¾)" Topic #18: Acids and Bases- 10 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Lewis acids and bases (HL ONLY) 18.1 "A Lewis acid is a lone pair acceptor and a Lewis base is a lone pair donor." "When a Lewis base reacts with a Lewis acid a coordinate bond is formed." "A nucleophile is a Lewis base and an electrophile is a Lewis acid." Calculations involving acids and bases (HL ONLY) 18.2 "The expression for the dissociation constant of a weak acid (Ka) and a weak base (Kb)." "For a conjugate acid base pair, Ka Ãâ€" Kb = Kw." "The relationship between Ka and pKa is (pKa = -log Ka), and between Kb and pKb is (pKb = -log Kb)." pH curves (HL ONLY) 18.3 "The characteristics of the pH curves produced by the different combinations of strong and weak acids and bases." "An acid–base indicator is a weak acid or a weak base where the components of the conjugate acid–base pair have different colours." "The relationship between the pH range of an acid–base indicator, which is a weak acid, and its pKa value." "The buffer region on the pH curve represents the region where small additions of acid or base result in little or no change in pH." "The composition and action of a buffer solution." Topic #19: Redox Processes- 6 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrochemical cells (HL ONLY) 19.1 "A voltaic cell generates an electromotive force (EMF) resulting in the movement of electrons from the anode (negative electrode) to the cathode (positive electrode) via the external circuit. The EMF is termed the cell potential (E º)." "The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) consists of an inert platinum electrode in contact with 1 mol dm-3 hydrogen ion and hydrogen gas at 100 kPa and 298 K. The standard electrode potential (E º) is the potential (voltage) of the reduction half-equation under standard conditions measured relative to the SHE. Solute concentration is 1 mol dm-3 or 100 kPa for gases. E º of the SHE is 0 V." "When aqueous solutions are electrolysed, water can be oxidized to oxygen at the anode and reduced to hydrogen at the cathode. "ΔG º = -nFE º. When E º is positive, ΔG º is negative indicative of a spontaneous process. When E º is negative, ΔG º is positive indicative of a non-spontaneous process. When E º is 0, then ΔG º is 0." "Current, duration of electrolysis and charge on the ion affect the amount of product formed at the electrodes during electrolysis." "Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an object with a metallic thin layer." The coolest club of them all. Topic #20: Organic Chemistry- 12 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Types of organic reactions (HL ONLY) 20.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions: "SN1 represents a nucleophilic unimolecular substitution reaction and SN2 represents a nucleophilic bimolecular substitution reaction. SN1 involves a carbocation intermediate. SN2 involves a concerted reaction with a transition state." "For tertiary halogenoalkanes the predominant mechanism is SN1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is SN2. Both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes." "The rate determining step (slow step) in an SN1 reaction depends only on the concentration of the halogenoalkane, rate = k[halogenoalkane]. For SN2, rate = k[halogenoalkane][nucleophile]. SN2 is stereospecific with an inversion of configuration at the carbon." "SN2 reactions are best conducted using aprotic, non-polar solvents and SN1 reactions are best conducted using protic, polar solvents." Electrophilic Addition Reactions: "An electrophile is an electron-deficient species that can accept electron pairs from a nucleophile. Electrophiles are Lewis acids." "Markovnikov’s rule can be applied to predict the major product in electrophilic addition reactions of unsymmetrical alkenes with hydrogen halides and interhalogens. The formation of the major product can be explained in terms of the relative stability of possible carbocations in the reaction mechanism." Electrophilic Substitution Reactions: "Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon compound (or arene) and has a delocalized structure of Ï€ bonds around its ring. Each carbon to carbon bond has a bond order of 1.5. Benzene is susceptible to attack by electrophiles." Reduction Reactions: "Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols (via the aldehyde). Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols. Typical reducing agents are lithium aluminium hydride (used to reduce carboxylic acids) and sodium borohydride." Synthetic routes (HL ONLY) 20.2 "The synthesis of an organic compound stems from a readily available starting material via a series of discrete steps. Functional group interconversions are the basis of such synthetic routes." "Retro-synthesis of organic compounds." Stereoisomerism (HL ONLY) 20.3 "Stereoisomers are subdivided into two classes- conformational isomers, which interconvert by rotation about a ÏÆ' bond and configurational isomers that interconvert only by breaking and reforming a bond. Configurational isomers are further subdivided into cis-trans and E/Z isomers and optical isomers." "Cis-trans isomers can occur in alkenes or cycloalkanes (or heteroanalogues) and differ in the positions of atoms (or groups) relative to a reference plane. According to IUPAC, E/Z isomers refer to alkenes of the form R1R2C=CR3R4 (R1 ≠  R2, R3 ≠  R4) where neither R1 nor R2 need be different from R3 or R4." "A chiral carbon is a carbon joined to four different atoms or groups." "An optically active compound can rotate the plane of polarized light as it passes through a solution of the compound. Optical isomers are enantiomers. Enantiomers are non-superimposeable mirror images of each other. Diastereomers are not mirror images of each other." "A racemic mixture (or racemate) is a mixture of two enantiomers in equal amounts and is optically inactive." Topic #21: Measurement and Analysis- 2 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (HL ONLY) 21.1 "Structural identification of compounds involves several different analytical techniques including IR, 1H NMR and MS." "In a high resolution 1H NMR spectrum, single peaks present in low resolution can split into further clusters of peaks." "The structural technique of single crystal X-ray crystallography can be used to identify the bond lengths and bond angles of crystalline compounds." Options As a part of your IB Chemistry class you'll cover an additional subject from the list below (typically your teacher chooses which subject you'll cover). Whichever option is chosen, you'll cover 5-7 topics (15 hours total) for SL and an additional 3 or 4 topics (25 hours total) for HL. Option A: Materials- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Materials science introduction A.1 "Materials are classified based on their uses, properties, or bonding and structure." "The properties of a material based on the degree of covalent, ionic or metallic character in a compound can be deduced from its position on a bonding triangle." "Composites are mixtures in which materials are composed of two distinct phases, a reinforcing phase that is embedded in a matrix phase." Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy A.2 "Reduction by coke (carbon), a more reactive metal, or electrolysis are means of obtaining some metals from their ores." "The relationship between charge and the number of moles of electrons is given by Faraday’s constant, F. "Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals with other metals or non-metals." "Diamagnetic and paramagnetic compounds differ in electron spin pairing and their behaviour in magnetic fields." "Trace amounts of metals can be identified and quantified by ionizing them with argon gas plasma in Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy using Mass Spectroscopy ICP-MS and Optical Emission Spectroscopy ICP-OES." Catalysts A.3 "Reactants adsorb onto heterogeneous catalysts at active sites and the products desorb." "Homogeneous catalysts chemically combine with the reactants to form a temporary activated complex or a reaction intermediate." "Transition metal catalytic properties depend on the adsorption/absorption properties of the metal and the variable oxidation states." "Zeolites act as selective catalysts because of their cage structure." "Catalytic particles are nearly always nanoparticles that have large surface areas per unit mass." Liquid crystals A.4 "Liquid crystals are fluids that have physical properties (electrical, optical and elasticity) that are dependent on molecular orientation to some fixed axis in the material." "Thermotropic liquid-crystal materials are pure substances that show liquidcrystal behaviour over a temperature range." "Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutions that show the liquid-crystal state over a (certain) range of concentrations." "Nematic liquid crystal phase is characterized by rod shaped molecules which are randomly distributed but on average align in the same direction." Polymers A.5 "Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when cooled." "A thermosetting polymer is a prepolymer in a soft solid or viscous state that changes irreversibly into a hardened thermoset by curing." "Elastomers are flexible and can be deformed under force but will return to nearly their original shape once the stress is released." "High density polyethene (HDPE) has no branching allowing chains to be packed together." "Low density polyethene (LDPE) has some branching and is more flexible." "Plasticizers added to a polymer increase the flexibility by weakening the intermolecular forces between the polymer chains." "Atom economy is a measure of efficiency applied in green chemistry." "Isotactic addition polymers have substituents on the same side." "Atactic addition polymers have the substituents randomly placed." Nanotechnology A.6 "Molecular self-assembly is the bottom-up assembly of nanoparticles and can occur by selectively attaching molecules to specific surfaces. Self-assembly can also occur spontaneously in solution." "Possible methods of producing nanotubes are arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and high pressure carbon monoxide (HIPCO)." "Arc discharge involves either vaporizing the surface of one of the carbon electrodes, or discharging an arc through metal electrodes submersed in a hydrocarbon solvent, which forms a small rod-shaped deposit on the anode." Environmental impact- plastics A.7 "Plastics do not degrade easily because of their strong covalent bonds." "Burning of polyvinyl chloride releases dioxins, HCl gas and incomplete hydrocarbon combustion products." "Dioxins contain unsaturated six-member heterocyclic rings with two oxygen atoms, usually in positions 1 and 4." "Chlorinated dioxins are hormone disrupting, leading to cellular and genetic damage." "Plastics require more processing to be recycled than other materials." "Plastics are recycled based on different resin types." Option A: Additional HL Materials Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Superconducting metals and X-ray crystallography (HL ONLY) A.8 "Superconductors are materials that offer no resistance to electric currents below a critical temperature." "The Meissner effect is the ability of a superconductor to create a mirror image magnetic field of an external field, thus expelling it." "Resistance in metallic conductors is caused by collisions between electrons and positive ions of the lattice." "The Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory explains that below the critical temperature electrons in superconductors form Cooper pairs which move freely through the superconductor." "Type 1 superconductors have sharp transitions to superconductivity whereas Type 2 superconductors have more gradual transitions." "X-ray diffraction can be used to analyse structures of metallic and ionic compounds." "Crystal lattices contain simple repeating unit cells." "Atoms on faces and edges of unit cells are shared." "The number of nearest neighbours of an atom/ion is its coordination number." Condensation polymers(HL ONLY) A.9 "Condensation polymers require two functional groups on each monomer." "NH3, HCl and H2O are possible products of condensation reactions." "Kevlar ® is a polyamide with a strong and ordered structure. The hydrogen bonds between O and N can be broken with the use of concentrated sulfuric acid." Environmental impact- heavy metals(HL ONLY) A.10 "Toxic doses of transition metals can disturb the normal oxidation/reduction balance in cells through various mechanisms." "Some methods of removing heavy metals are precipitation, adsorption, and chelation." "Polydentate ligands form more stable complexes than similar monodentate ligands due to the chelate effect, which can be explained by considering entropy changes." Option B: Biochemistry- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to biochemistry B.1 "The diverse functions of biological molecules depend on their structures and shapes." "Metabolic reactions take place in highly controlled aqueous environments." "Reactions of breakdown are called catabolism and reactions of synthesis are called anabolism." "Biopolymers form by condensation reactions and are broken down by hydrolysis reactions." "Photosynthesis is the synthesis of energy-rich molecules from carbon dioxide and water using light energy." "Respiration is a complex set of metabolic processes providing energy for cells." Proteins and enzymes B.2 "Proteins are polymers of 2-amino acids, joined by amide links (also known as peptide bonds)." "Amino acids are amphoteric and can exist as zwitterions, cations and anions." "Protein structures are diverse and are described at the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels." "A protein’s three-dimensional shape determines its role in structural components or in metabolic processes." "Most enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts by binding specifically to a substrate at the active site." "As enzyme activity depends on the conformation, it is sensitive to changes in temperature and pH and the presence of heavy metal ions." "Chromatography separation is based on different physical and chemical principles." Lipids B.3 "Fats are more reduced than carbohydrates and so yield more energy when oxidized." "Triglycerides are produced by condensation of glycerol with three fatty acids and contain ester links. Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated." "Phospholipids are derivatives of triglycerides." "Hydrolysis of triglycerides and phospholipids can occur using enzymes or in alkaline or acidic conditions." "Steroids have a characteristic fused ring structure, known as a steroidal backbone." "Lipids act as structural components of cell membranes, in energy storage, thermal and electrical insulation, as transporters of lipid soluble vitamins and as hormones." Carbohydrates B.4 "Carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)y." "Haworth projections represent the cyclic structures of monosaccharides." "Monosaccharides contain either an aldehyde group (aldose) or a ketone group (ketose) and several –OH groups." "Straight chain forms of sugars cyclize in solution to form ring structures containing an ether linkage." "Glycosidic bonds form between monosaccharides forming disaccharides and polysaccharides." "Carbohydrates are used as energy sources and energy reserves." Vitamins B.5 "Vitamins are organic micronutrients which (mostly) cannot be synthesized by the body but must be obtained from suitable food sources." "The solubility (water or fat) of a vitamin can be predicted from its structure." "Most vitamins are sensitive to heat." "Vitamin deficiencies in the diet cause particular diseases and affect millions of people worldwide." Biochemistry and the environment B.6 "Xenobiotics refer to chemicals that are found in an organism that are not normally present there." "Biodegradable/compostable plastics can be consumed or broken down by bacteria or other living organisms." "Host–guest chemistry involves the creation of synthetic host molecules that mimic some of the actions performed by enzymes in cells, by selectively binding to specific guest species, such as toxic materials in the environment." "Enzymes have been developed to help in the breakdown of oil spills and other industrial wastes." "Enzymes in biological detergents can improve energy efficiency by enabling effective cleaning at lower temperatures." "Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of a substance in a food chain." "Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an approach to chemical research and engineering that seeks to minimize the production and release to the environment of hazardous substances." Option B: Additional HL Biochemistry Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Proteins and enzymes (HL ONLY) B.7 "Inhibitors play an important role in regulating the activities of enzymes." "Amino acids and proteins can act as buffers in solution." "Protein assays commonly use UV-vis spectroscopy and a calibration curve based on known standards." Nucleic acids(HL ONLY) B.8 "Nucleotides are the condensation products of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and a nitrogenous base- adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) or uracil (U)." "Polynucleotides form by condensation reactions." "DNA is a double helix of two polynucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds." "RNA is usually a single polynucleotide chain that contains uracil in place of thymine, and a sugar ribose in place of deoxyribose." "The sequence of bases in DNA determines the primary structure of proteins synthesized by the cell using a triplet code, known as the genetic code, which is universal." "Genetically modified organisms have genetic material that has been altered by genetic engineering techniques, involving transferring DNA between species." Biological pigments (HL ONLY) B.9 "Biological pigments are coloured compounds produced by metabolism." "The colour of pigments is due to highly conjugated systems with delocalized electrons, which have intense absorption bands in the visible region." "Porphyrin compounds, such as hemoglobin, myoglobin, chlorophyll and many cytochromes are chelates of metals with large nitrogen-containing macrocyclic ligands." "Hemoglobin and myoglobin contain heme groups with the porphyrin group bound to an iron(II) ion." "Cytochromes contain heme groups in which the iron ion interconverts between iron(II) and iron(III) during redox reactions." "Anthocyanins are aromatic, water-soluble pigments widely distributed in plants. Their specific colour depends on metal ions and pH." "Carotenoids are lipid-soluble pigments, and are involved in harvesting light in photosynthesis. They are susceptible to oxidation, catalysed by light." Stereochemistry in biomolecules(HL ONLY) B.10 "With one exception, amino acids are chiral, and only the L-configuration is found in proteins." "Naturally occurring unsaturated fat is mostly in the cis form, but food processing can convert it into the trans form." "D and L stereoisomers of sugars refer to the configuration of the chiral carbon atom furthest from the aldehyde or ketone group, and D forms occur most frequently in nature." "Ring forms of sugars have isomers, known as ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ², depending on whether the position of the hydroxyl group at carbon 1 (glucose) or carbon 2 (fructose) lies below the plane of the ring (ÃŽ ±) or above the plane of the ring (ÃŽ ²)." "Vision chemistry involves the light activated interconversion of cis- and trans- isomers of retinal." Option C: Energy- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Energy sources C.1 "A useful energy source releases energy at a reasonable rate and produces minimal pollution." "The quality of energy is degraded as heat is transferred to the surroundings. Energy and materials go from a concentrated into a dispersed form. The quantity of the energy available for doing work decreases." "Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished. Non-renewable energy sources are finite." "Energy density = energy released from fuel volume of fuel consumed." "Specific energy = energy released from fuel mass of fuel consumed." "The effeciency of an energy transfer = useful output energy total input energy x 100%." Fossil fuels C.2 "Fossil fuels were formed by the reduction of biological compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen." "Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that can be split into different component parts called fractions by fractional distillation." "Crude oil needs to be refined before use. The different fractions are separated by a physical process in fractional distillation." "The tendency of a fuel to auto-ignite, which leads to â€Å"knocking† in a car engine, is related to molecular structure and measured by the octane number." "The performance of hydrocarbons as fuels is improved by the cracking and catalytic reforming reactions." "Coal gasification and liquefaction are chemical processes that convert coal to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons." "A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases produced during human activities. It is generally expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide." Nuclear fusion and fission C.3 Nuclear fusion "Light nuclei can undergo fusion reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon." "Fusion reactions are a promising energy source as the fuel is inexpensive and abundant, and no radioactive waste is produced." "Absorption spectra are used to analyse the composition of stars." Nuclear fission "Heavy nuclei can undergo fission reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon." "235U undergoes a fission chain reaction: U235 92 + n10 → U 236 92 → X + Y + neutrons." "The critical mass is the mass of fuel needed for the reaction to be self-sustaining." "239Pu, used as a fuel in â€Å"breeder reactors†, is produced from 238U by neutron capture." "Radioactive waste may contain isotopes with long and short half-lives." "Half-life is the time it takes for half the number of atoms to decay." Solar energy C.4 "Light can be absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments with a conjugated electronic structure." "Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy: 6CO2 + 6H2O == C6H12O6 + 6O2" "Fermentation of glucose produces ethanol which can be used as a biofuel: C6H12O6 == 2C2H5OH + 2CO2." "Energy content of vegetable oils is similar to that of diesel fuel but they are not used in internal combustion engines as they are too viscous." "Transesterification between an ester and an alcohol with a strong acid or base catalyst produces a different ester: RCOOR1 + R2OH == RCOOR2 + R1OH." "In the transesterification process, involving a reaction with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or base, the triglyceride vegetable oils are converted to a mixture mainly comprising of alkyl esters and glycerol, but with some fatty acids." "Transesterification with ethanol or methanol produces oils with lower viscosity that can be used in diesel engines." Environmental impact- global warming C.5 "Greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar short wavelength radiation but absorb the longer wavelength radiation from the Earth. Some of the absorbed radiation is re-radiated back to Earth." "There is a heterogeneous equilibrium between concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and aqueous carbon dioxide in the oceans." "Greenhouse gases absorb IR radiation as there is a change in dipole moment as the bonds in the molecule stretch and bend." "Particulates such as smoke and dust cause global dimming as they reflect sunlight, as do clouds." Option C: Additional HL Energy Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells (HL ONLY) C.6 "An electrochemical cell has internal resistance due to the finite time it takes for ions to diffuse. The maximum current of a cell is limited by its internal resistance." "The voltage of a battery depends primarily on the nature of the materials used while the total work that can be obtained from it depends on their quantity." "In a primary cell the electrochemical reaction is not reversible. Rechargeable cells involve redox reactions that can be reversed using electricity." "A fuel cell can be used to convert chemical energy, contained in a fuel that is consumed, directly to electrical energy." "Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a possible sustainable energy source using different carbohydrates or substrates present in waste waters as the fuel." "The Nernst equation can be used to calculate the potential of a half-cell in an electrochemical cell, under non-standard conditions." "The electrodes in a concentration cell are the same but the concentration of the electrolyte solutions at the cathode and anode are different." Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission(HL ONLY) C.7 Nuclear fusion: "The mass defect (∆m) is the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual nucleons." "The nuclear binding energy (ΔE) is the energy required to separate a nucleus into protons and neutrons." Nuclear fission: "The energy produced in a fission reaction can be calculated from the mass difference between the products and reactants using the Einstein mass–energy equivalence relationship ð   ¸ = ð â€˜Å¡c^2." "The different isotopes of uranium in uranium hexafluoride can be separated, using diffusion or centrifugation causing fuel enrichment." "The effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass (Graham’s Law)." "Radioactive decay is kinetically a first order process with the half-life related to the decay constant by the equation ð Å"† = ln 2 /ð â€˜ ¡1 ." "The dangers of nuclear energy are due to the ionizing nature of the radiation it produces which leads to the production of oxygen free radicals such as superoxide (O2-), and hydroxyl (HO ·). These free radicals can initiate chain reactions that can damage DNA and enzymes in living cells." Photovoltaic cells and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC)(HL ONLY) C.8 "Molecules with longer conjugated systems absorb light of longer wavelength." "The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases with an increase in temperature whereas the conductivity of metals decreases." "The conductivity of silicon can be increased by doping to produce n-type and p- type semiconductors." "Solar energy can be converted to electricity in a photovoltaic cell." "DSSCs imitate the way in which plants harness solar energy. Electrons are "injected" from an excited molecule directly into the TiO2 semiconductor." "The use of nanoparticles coated with light-absorbing dye increases the effective surface area and allows more light over a wider range of the visible spectrum to be absorbed." Option D: Medicinal Chemistry- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Pharmaceutical products and drug action D.1 "In animal studies, the therapeutic index is the lethal dose of a drug for 50% of the population (LD50) divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population (ED50)." "In humans, the therapeutic index is the toxic dose of a drug for 50% of the population (TD50) divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population (ED50)." "The therapeutic window is the range of dosages between the minimum amounts of the drug that produce the desired effect and a medically unacceptable adverse effect." "Dosage, tolerance, addiction and side effects are considerations of drug administration." "Bioavailability is the fraction of the administered dosage that reaches the target part of the human body." "The main steps in the development of synthetic drugs include identifying the need and structure, synthesis, yield and extraction." "Drug–receptor interactions are based on the structure of the drug and the site of activity." Aspirin and penicillin D.2 Aspirin: "Mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances that cause pain, swelling or fever." "Aspirin is prepared from salicylic acid." "Aspirin can be used as an anticoagulant, in prevention of the recurrence of heart attacks and strokes and as a prophylactic." Penicillin: "Penicillins are antibiotics produced by fungi." "A beta-lactam ring is a part of the core structure of penicillins." "Some antibiotics work by preventing cross-linking of the bacterial cell walls." "Modifying the side-chain results in penicillins that are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme." Opiates D.3 "The ability of a drug to cross the blood–brain barrier depends on its chemical structure and solubility in water and lipids." "Opiates are natural narcotic analgesics that are derived from the opium poppy." "Morphine and codeine are used as strong analgesics. Strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the brain, preventing the transmission of pain impulses without depressing the central nervous system." "Medical use and addictive properties of opiate compounds are related to the presence of opioid receptors in the brain." pH regulation of the stomach D.4 "Non-specific reactions, such as the use of antacids, are those that work to reduce the excess stomach acid." "Active metabolites are the active forms of a drug after it has been processed by the body." Antiviral medications D.5 "Viruses lack a cell structure and so are more difficult to target with drugs than bacteria." "Antiviral drugs may work by altering the cell’s genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply. Alternatively, they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell." Environmental impact of some medications D.6 "High-level waste (HLW) is waste that gives off large amounts of ionizing radiation for a long time." "Low-level waste (LLW) is waste that gives off small amounts of ionizing radiation for a short time." "Antibiotic resistance occurs when micro-organisms become resistant to antibacterials." Option D: Additional HL Medicinal Chemistry Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Taxol- a chiral auxiliary case study (HL ONLY) D.7 "Taxol is a drug that is commonly used to treat several different forms of cancer." "Taxol naturally occurs in yew trees but is now commonly synthetically produced." "A chiral auxiliary is an optically active substance that is temporarily incorporated into an organic synthesis so that it can be carried out asymmetrically with the selective formation of a single enantiomer." Nuclear medicine (HL ONLY) D.8 "Alpha, beta, gamma, proton, neutron and positron emissions are all used for medical treatment." "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an application of NMR technology." "Radiotherapy can be internal and/or external." "Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) and Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) are two methods which are used in cancer treatment." Drug detection and analysis (HL ONLY) D.9 "Organic structures can be analysed and identified through the use of infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy and proton NMR." "The presence of alcohol in a sample of breath can be detected through the use of either a redox reaction or a fuel cell type of breathalyser." Practical Scheme of Work You also need to complete experiments and experimental reports as a part of any IB Science course. For SL, there is 40 hours of material. For HL, there is 60 hours of material. Here are the activities: Practical activities- 20 hours for SL and 40 hours for HL Lab work in class counts towards these hours Individual investigation (internal assessment-IA)- 10 hours for SL and HL A lab project along with a report that counts as 20% of your IB exam scores (written exam counts for the other 80%) Group 4 Project- 10 hours for SL and HL Students are separated into groups and must conduct an experiment and write a report. Hopefully, yours won't end in smoke! What’s Next? Looking for notes and a study guide for IB Chemistry? We have a complete guide to IB Chemistry, a breakdown (so to speak) of what enzymes are and what they do, and specific tips for balancing chemical equations. You can also find out where to buy past IB Chemistry papers here! Curious about how you can use your chemistry knowledge outside the classroom? Try out these three recipes for slime and see which combination of ingredients has what effect! And if after doing this your kitchen mysteriously comes down with a case of the clogged drains, you'll want to learn how to use muriatic acid safely and effectively to solve the problem. Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: