Herzberg S Two Factor Theory Tourism Essay

Herzberg S Two Factor Theory Tourism leavenIt is commonly known that all Human Beings have postulate. daft (2008) defines call for as things that individuals want and piddle for to achieve. Kotler (2005) points come in that an un at rest sine qua non creates emphasis which kindle the desire to achieve an outcome that seems to be magnetic.Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory visualizes that at that place is a huge gap betwixt the things that create dis at acement and the things that pertain pleasure ( mild 2008). Further much, Herzberg found that triumph is non the opposite of dissatisfaction, merely no satisfaction (Kotler, 2005). The Hygiene Factors atomic number 18 things that ar expected by a humanekind being and influence the direct of dissatisfaction. If those factors atomic number 18 poor or absent, a human being is dissatisfied (Herzberg 1968 in Mead 2005). If those factors atomic number 18 good, on the former(a) stack, they remove the dissatisfaction notwithst anding do not create satisfaction. The Motivators however, create satisfaction if they ar good, simply do not create dissatisfaction when they argon poor. The level that lies between the Hygiene Factors and the Motivators creates neither satisfaction nor dissatisfaction (Herzberg 1968 in Daft 2008). use to the Tourism per fractureance Hygiene Factors could be a safe environment, a clean Hotel room, friendly staff etc., whereas Motivators could be an unexpected upgrade, free radio lan and all everywhere average security and rubber nullifyr precautions.Abraham H. Maslow first published his Theory of Needs in 1954. He points out that on that point ar multiple adopt that do human beings and they exist in a hierarchical sanctify, from the least to the most pressing (Kotler et. al, 2006). He categorized inescapably in five categories which argon physiological needs, gum elastic needs, sociable needs, delight in needs, and self- substantialization needs. Those needs act a s motivators in order to drive globe (Eckermann).The physiological needs entangle the needs for food, water, rest and oxygen (Daft 2008) whereas the prophylactic needs represents the need for security in the physical and ruttish environment, apology from physical and emotional harm as well as the immunity from threats (Robbins DeCenzo, 2005).Social needs, however, are the needs for giving and receiving love, belong close towhere, and get affection. Daft (2008) adds that mass need to be received by former(a)s, have friendships and relationships, and to be part of a assembly.Further much, the Esteems needs, which are also called as Ego Needs, include self-respect and the esteem from others. Additionally, in that location is need for attention, a overbearing self-image, light and appreciation from others (Daft 2005).The need for Self-Actualization is the need for achieving challenging tasks and to be creative (Halepota, Eckermann ). A human desires to develop its full pote ntial, increase competence, and to become and be a go person (Daft 2008).Cartwright (2000) suggests a sixth need level which he calls the unattainable. It is an un runable needs that individuals strive for but rat never reach and at that placefore, they can never be fully and entirely satisfied (in Mead 2005).The start level needs are called biogenetic needs (Schiffmann and Kanuk) or as Mead (2005) calls them the basic needs or deficiency needs (Daft 2008). Those needs are satisfied with external factors such as food, m wizardy, and praise from others. They are comparable with the Hiygiene Factors of Herzbergs Theory.The higher-level needs are the psychogenic (Schiffmann and Kanuk) or ego and self- positiveization needs (Mead 2005) which are, unlike the basic needs, satisfied by internal outcomes e.g. sense of exertion and competence.Robbins and DeCenzo (2005) have pointed out that each level has to be satisfied forrader an individual moves up to the next level and other nee ds becomes releforefrontt. If one need is satisfied, it is no longer motivating and needs are satisfied progressively (Mead 2005).Since for this work, mainly the safety needs are of relevance, the author testament mainly empha size of it on only those needs. However, also the physiological needs for shelter are primary(prenominal) to consider. The Tourism Industry has to be really familiar with and understand those needs thoroughly. Fulfilling the biogenetic needs of customers allow for leaping the company a competitive advantage, since fulfilling those basic needs go forth motivate the con make senseer to strive for higher needs (psychogenic needs) and thus satisfy them more. Therefore, the Tourism Industry has to provide a safe environment for their touring cars.Equity Theory DaftHofstedeCulture DefinitionHofstede (1984)cited in Mead (2005) Culture is the collective programming of the sense which distinguishes the members of one human group from another. Culture, in thi s sense, includes systems of value and values are among the building blocks of culture (p. 8). Out of this definition it can be concluded that culture is intentional, and passed on from generation to generation, first from parents and families and then by institutions and members, and includes systems of values. harmonise to Hofstede (1984) in Mead (2005) values are assumptions intimately how members within a culture group should behave. Those values are more intensively learned in young age as children learn more unconsciously and therefore, the learned values are complex-rooted. Furthermore, Mead (2005) points out that each social group has its unique culture that is diverse from the culture of other social groups, and they suffice distinguishablely to similar stakes. Furthermore, incompatible culture groups have conflicting and different expectations from their environment.Several Culture stumpers have been established over the years, e.g. the Kluckholm and Strotbeck M odel in 1961 in Mead (2005), where they compared different cultures on the basis of the different orientations they have. The model of dormitory (1976) in Mead (2005) distinguishes between low-context cultures that emphasizes on the verbal way of communicating and whose members need rather facts than interpretations and non-verbal communication such as in high-context cultures. Due to seat limitations, in this work however, it will only be focused on Hofstedes Model as it fits the best for this topic because it includes the dimension of uncertainty evasion which can be applied best to the needs for safety and security.The Hofstede Model has five Dimensions with which it distinguishes cultures. Those five Dimensions are Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, masculinity/Feminity, and Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation (Hofstede 2001).Power Distance is the distance between individuals from one level of the hierarchy to the other and the extent to whic h individuals accept or tole place that power is not distributed equally. In cultures where the power distance is high, there is a big gap e.g. between a passenger vehicle and his employees, and anybody knows their bureau and accepts it. In a low power distance culture, however, Uncertainty turning away represent the need to avoid uncertainties in the future tense or to be pretend-taking. Cultures in which the need for uncertainty avoidance is high, are more impatient about the future, stabilize greater relationships and put a lot of vigor into making plans for the future. In culture where the need for uncertainty avoidance is low, however, individuals are more willing to take pretends and to change.Individualism versus collectivism shows if individuals have deep relationships with each other or rather not have emotional connections with others. In individualist cultures the individual identity is stressed and competition is expected. In collectivist cultures, on the other side, the group interest is more primary(prenominal) that the individual interest and individuals are very loyal to group members.maleness versus Femininity is how the roles and values in a society are divided. In masculine cultures there is a big deviance between evoke roles. Those cultures are very competitive and career oriented. In feminine cultures, however, relationships and human contacts are very of the essence(p).Long-term versus short-term orientation represents a temporal role orientation towards life. Long-term oriented cultures value persistence and relationships are distinctly ordered according to the status of individuals. Short-term oriented cultures value individualized steadiness and stability, respect tradition, and exchange greetings, favors, and gifts.DiagramPerception of imperilsPerceptionSirgy (1982) defines light as the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets information to create a meaningful picture of the world (in Kotle r et. al, p. 213). Human Beings collect information finished the five senses which are sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste. People act differently based on their light callable to the fact that each person receives, organizes, and then interprets the inbound information in an individual way. That different people have different perceptions of the same object, situation etc., is because of the three perceptual processes.Selective Attention agency that due to the massive amount of stimuli a person is exposed to every day, some stimuli will simply been screened out. Therefore, managers have to make their products noticeable to the consumers, by relating a stimuli to the current need, create stimuli that consumers anticipate, and establish high deviations compared to the normal size of the stimuli.Selective Distortion is the twisting of information into personal meaning so that it fits the preconceptions.Selective Retention happens when people only retain information that beef up ones attitudes and beliefs and forget the rest (Kotler et. al, 2006).Glaesser (2003) defines guess as the term expected damage. It is metrical by the size of the damage sentences the probability that something will occur. If the tourist receives as hazard as too much that it exceeds the tolerance level, the consumer will use attempt reduction techniques (Kreilkamp, 1998 in Glaesser). This tolerance level is unflinching by the degree of credibility appearance of the touristry organisation, the speed of its actions as well as the number of times a negative suit occurred repetitiously (Kroeber-Riel, 1992 in Glaesser, 2003). It also has to be taken in account, that personal factors passing influence perception, which leads to a subjective attempt assessment which includes quantitative risk factors, qualitative risk factors, and individual risk factors (Jungermann, 1991 in Glaesser, 2003). Quantitative risk factors influence a persons perception and increases if a negative event that has occurred in the past is remembered or can be imaginedDifferencesAlthough these two factors are very important by talking about risk perception, the author will focus only on the individual risk factors, as those are more relevant for the work. Several personal determinants influence a persons perception such as age, gender, and education. The WTO (1994) states that female tourists have a higher risk perceptions than men. Young tourists between 18 and 24 years of age, however, perceive risk while travelling as less than older tourists (in Glaesser, 2003).Another important factor that has to be considered is the cultural aspect. Tourists from different cultural rachisgrounds have different risk perceptions, which could be explained due to different social, deportmental and development forms (Kemp, 1993 Snmez and Graefe, 1998 in Glaesser, 2003).Hofstede Gee and Gain (1986) point out that tourists perceive risk more if a negative incident in the past has coincidently affected someone out of their own culture/country.Furthermore, it has to be mentioned that act of terrorism in general does not lead to a decline in tourism charter. If the terrorism attacks, however, are directed direcly against tourists that lead to injuries and deaths, they would choose another end point (Wilkinson, 1993 Snmez, 1998 in Glaesser, 2003).Usually higher than the real risk/danger that exists (Brayshaw)Risk Perception is mutually not logical, because it is influenced through the media. (Santana) amateur videos or colorful pictures.Higher change of being violated or having an accident at home than during the holiday/vacation. (Santana)Spill-over effect association of one incident with the whole region or country (Santana)Tourism labor Sectors within are interrelated and dependent (transportation, exchange rates, political and social structure, weather, etc. If one varies or changes negatively, it affects the others. (Santana)Since tourism references heavily depen d on tourists, they have to address the heavily fluctuating demand that arises due to the changing perception of the riskiness of the destination (Meheux Parker, 2006). Destinations that are perceived as a threat to their safety or well-being of the travelers, will be avoided (Beirman, 2003). Holden (2008) stresses this boost by saying that perceived risks can be so reigning that tourists would even oppose going to a destination and choosing another destination or else that appears to be more pleasant and safe (Henderson, 2007). Timothy (2006) points out an exception by saying that some tourists deliberately travel to raging destinations out of curiosity. Furthermore, it is state that most tourists are not primarily bear on with being caught in a possibility, especially if a long time has passed since the last disaster or incident.Summing up, it can be said that tourists are prepared and willing to accept a certain amount of risk. However, if the risk perception exceeds the tolerance level, the destination will be substituted.RMAccording to van Waldbeck risk assessment is a key stage in planning for crisis, involving the foreboding of what might go wrong and identification of the reasons for divergences from expectations (2005 cited in Henderson, 2007 p. 3).As a tool, marketers can continuously promote the safety in risky destinations, as this can make the tourist neglecting the threat (Henderson, 2007). Hudson (2008) suggests a hurricane guarantee that allows the tourists to rebook their vacation. Huan et. al (2004) on the other side argue that instead of building confidence, stressing the safety of a destination and safety plans have a negative touch on on the tourists image of a destination and could negatively impact the buy decision. Concerning the question, how big the time span between an incident and a start of marketing the destination, the WTO WMO (1998) suggest that this decision has to be made responsively concerning the safety instea d of the profit-making (in Henderson, 2007).Definition of Crisis. (Glaesser)Definition of Crisis ManagementCrisis Management includes changes of tasks as response to a crisis. (Glaesser)When thinking of Tourism, one most commonly thinks of enjoyment, relaxation, and safety. On the other side, however, disasters mother about fear, stress, anxiety, trauma, and panic (Santana, 2003). Those two sides go hand in hand because crisis have eer been and always will be part of tourism operations. Thus, it affects all parties that are part of the Tourism System e.g. the tourist, destination, communities, tourism companies, regulators, promoters (Santana, 2003).Faulkner defines a disaster as where an enterprise is confronted with sudden unpredictable catastrophic changes over which it has little control (Faulkner, 2001 p. 136, cited in Ritchie, 2004).According to Glaesser (2003) , a crisis is an unusual and unloved situation that demands an immediate response due to it seriousness.Differen ces between disasters and crisisCrisis describes a situation where the root cause of the event lies internal of an organization and is due to out of practice(predicate) or ineffective concern practices and the inability or unwillingness to adapt to an ongoing change (Faulkner, 2001). E.g. Chernobyl,A crisis could be to some extent prevented, but standard procedures often redefine the abnormal as normal and therefore, not adapt to change (Booth, 1993). A crisis, however, can also amaze positive things as it acts as a turning point for better or for worse ( shit, 1986, in Faulkner, 2001). Pos. outcomes innovation, recognition of new markets), totally new and more effective configuration might emerge. (Chaos Theory)A disaster on the other side is a situation or event that is unpredictable and over which organizations or enterprises has little control (Faulkner, 2001). E.g. eathquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis. Unfortunately, some exemplification signals of disasters that are about to happen are ignored - leave communities unprepared (Faulkner, 2001).Burton et al. (1978) in Faulkner (2001) To sum up, the global toll of natural disaster rises at least as fast as the increase in population and material wealth, and belike faster.We live in an increasingly complex world and this has contributed to making us more crisis or disaster prone (Richardson, 1994)Daft (2008) points out that an organization is confronted with small crises on a daily basis such as data loss, a fire etc. Bigger crises of intentional evilness such as bombings and kidnappings, or natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes observe to increase.Henderson (2007) states that disasters such as storms, floods, and droughts, will increase in its frequency due to extreme weather conditions, because of the ongoing climate change.This statement is supported by EM-DATs (2010) natural disaster trend which shows clearly that disasters have occurred more frequently since the beginning of 1900. This lets assume, that disasters will even increase more in the future. bright EM-DATCommunity responses to crisis include the shock state, where individuals feel helpless and disoriented the defensive measure and defensive retreat (to reach back to already established safety solutions or to go somewhere else) the acknowledgement state whereby the change is original and the adaption stage in which the community copes with the crisis and learns from it for the future. (Arnold, 1980, in Booth, 1993, in Faulkner, 2001)Degree to which companies work together and break down institutional barriers (because of inadequate resources - collaboration has to be planned sooner (Granot, 1997))Fig Faulkner crisis and disastersAlthough there is no generally accepted definition of crisis management in the literature (Santana, 2003), it can be said that in order to serve to a crisis, organizations have to take actions therefore by changing their tasks and processes (Glaesser, 2003). Since it can ne ver be known in advance if and what type of crisis will occur, Organizations have to be prepared through planning for the finish up case. According to Santana, this should be done through graceful advance planning and establishing frameworks, because only then it is come-at-able to cope with uncertainties. Brownwell (1990) stresses that there is even a bigger need for a good crisis management in the tourism industry since it is one of the most vulnerable industries.Fink (1986) the media plays an important role during the disaster management strategies and it has the power make the difference between whether or not a difficult situation evolves into a disaster (Fink, 1986). The media can be very useful by making known the community about warnings and to provide information during the recovery stage. However, the media often spreads off-key information and thus, can hinder the extremity operations by distracting the emergency personnel.In addition, the media also exaggerates in o rder to create panic and bring people to spend money e.g. in the form of panic buys before a possible hurricane. Due to the exaggeration and rumors of the media, the impact of a disaster in the tourism industry on the market has an unproportional impact to the actual natural disruptive effect (Cassedy, 1991 Murphy Bayley, 1989 Drabek, 1992).Drabek (1995) analyzed that tourists and tourist destinations in general are more vulnerable to disaster than other people/industries/etc. A reason for this could be that the most appealing and universal tourist destinations are tropical places where hurricanes, avalanches or volcanic eruptions are usual (Murphey and Bayley 1989). Since common targets for terrorists, such as embassies, are made less attractive due to increased safety measure, tourists became the new targets (Lehrman, 1986). Furthermore, during a disaster, tourists are always more independent and vulnerable than the community, as they are not as familiar with the local dangers ( Burby and Wagner 1996). Cassedy (1991) states that only a few companies have actual disaster emergency plans in their business plans, and in case they do so it is just made for one type of hazard (Drabek, 1995). In general, one can say that the bigger tourism enterprises are better prepared than smaller enterprises (Faulkner).According to Beirman (2003), the principles of Crisis Management are coordination, collaboration, communication, and commitment. Those principles are a good attempt, however, they are not sufficient, as during an unpredictable disaster there is no time for Stages FaulknerPreparationKotler et. al (2006) state that if there are precautions in place, negative events can be diminished or prevented from occurring. Therefore, possible crisis that have a chance of occurring should be determined and develop plans and worst case scenarios. These plans have to be communicated to all employees so that everybody knows their tasks and expected behavior in case of emergency. cascaded strategic priority profile(CSPP) (Heath, 1995, in Faulkner, 2001)Questionable, because an organizations usual activities and policies are not applicable during the situation of a crisis. (Huque, 1998, in Faulkner, 2001) e.g. companies with high arrange of command would have a too long response rate but need to react much faster in crisis situations. new(prenominal) restrictions are bureaucratic structures and low empowerment.Other problems communication failures, lack of on tap(predicate) resources (Heath, 1995, in Faulkner, 2001)Kotler et. al (2006) suggest that a good crisis management focuses more on the communication and less on the crisis. During training sessions, managers should be asked a set of possible challenging questions that they may have to answer by guests or the media.PreventionIt is very important to implement early and warning systems, and thus, create awareness in the tourists mind of potential danger. Ritchie argues that more enormousness should be given to reduction and readiness than to response and recovery, and tourists rely on the Tour Operator to provide them with the needed information (which is very important as tourists do not have the knowledge about hazard issues, as they are in an unfamiliar place (Johnston et. al (2007 $). Therefore, a proactive management is necessary, in order to provide the tourists beforehand with the necessary information and precautions (Henderson, 2007), so that tourists know the dangers that exists and adjust their behaviors accordingly ( Ritchie Crouch, 1997 in Glaesser, 2003).It is not possible to eliminate every danger or threat this is especially the case with natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis or hurricanes. Coburn (1992), however, states that the destruction can be diminished by building hotels etc. in a more solid way which make them more resistant but also require a higher investment.Warning SignalsWarning signals could be of any kind. Kotler et. al (2006) suggests that customer complaints, or strangers that walk around the shoes should be reported by employees to the security in order to prevent risks and crimes. Furthermore, in the internet a manager can read in chats or forums what former customers say and think about their fitty and thus, erase the failures.Damage LimitationAs mentioned above, communication is very important for a good crisis management. It can also reduce the negative publicity, if there is a good communication with the press in place (Kotler et. al 2006). A spokesperson should be chosen who should communicate the facts to the media, give timely updates, and thus keep an eye on the press updated. It is pointed out, that by talking to the media, the spokesperson or manager should never use the term no comment as it creates suspicion. According to Daft (2008), leaders should develop four communication skills. First of all, they need to stay calm and listen harder, by absorbing peoples fears and uncertainties. They should give comfort, inspiration, and commit by showing optimism. Secondly, they should be visible in order to show that someone is in control. They need to step out immediately and respond to followers and public concerns. Furthermore, it is very important that the spokesperson always tells the honor and, thus, only communicates facts. As a result of this, rumors will be cut back as well. Last but not least, a vision for the future has to be communicated so that people do not lose hope, keep going and the rebuilding process is faster.Recovery stageIn order for a destination to recover, appropriate equipment, time and monetary strength is needed. oddly during natural catastrophes, a region is unable to help itself, and therefore, needs interregional or international help and assistance in form of machinery and donations (Glaesser, 2006).Furthermore, it has to be indomitable who has to invest financially in rebuilding the destinations additionally to the donations. In some cases, the government pays and burdens the expenses in form of taxes on the community, stakeholders are made responsible, the insurance, or the suppliers of the tourism industry. (?)Another question is, what will be restored first. Most stakeholders demand that they are helped first, however, it is more important to rebuild the infrastructure first and this will benefit the community and the tourism industry, and thus, generate revenue which will be needed again for further reparations (Faulkner and Vikulov, 2001 Huang and Min, 2002, in Sharpley, R. 2005).The time a destination needs in order to recover and bring services back to normal depends on how well the market communication had been integrated (Faulkner, 2001) but is always influenced by the interest of the stakeholder concerning the speed of the recreation, the character of a destination, and how sever the devastation is.Learning StageTo sum up, by having a proper Crisis/ Disaster Management System in place, many hazards could either b e avoided or minimize their impacts (Faulkner, 2001).